Cardiac disease

My patient with atrial fibrillation (AF) with a CHA2DS2-VASc score ≥2 is not a candidate for anticoagulation due to excessive bleeding risk. Does high-dose aspirin provide an effective alternative for stroke prevention in this setting?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , Leave a comment

 The SPAF (Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation) trial1 found a 42% reduction in overall risk of stroke with daily aspirin (325 mg). However, critics note that no benefit was observed among patients > 75 y or those with severe stroke.

7 other studies on the topic failed to confirm reduction in the risk of stroke at a range of aspirin doses (25mg bid-1,300mg qd) 2. These studies reported that aspirin is associated with a 19% reduction in stroke incidence (similar to patients with vascular disease), with a 95% CI that crosses zero (-1% to 35%), raising doubts about its actual benefit in AF3. For secondary prevention, aspirin was associated with a 2.5% reduction in the annual risk of stroke. However, these results were influenced by the only trial with a favorable outcome, SPAF-14.

In short, even at higher doses, aspirin may not be the answer for stroke prevention in patients with AF.

 References

  1. Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Study. Final results. Circulation 1991;84, 527–39.
  2. January CT, Wann LS, Alpert  JS, et al. 2014 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline for the Management of Patients With Atrial Fibrillation: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation  2014;130, e199–e267.
  3. European Heart Rhythm Association et al. Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation: the Task Force for the Management of Atrial Fibrillation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Europace  2010; 12, 1360–420.
  4. Sabir IN, Matthews GDK,  Huang, CL-H. Antithrombotic therapy in atrial fibrillation: aspirin is rarely the right choice. Postgrad Med J 2013; 89, 346–51.

 

Contributed by Jacqueline Boehme, M.D., Medical Resident, Mass General Hospital

My patient with atrial fibrillation (AF) with a CHA2DS2-VASc score ≥2 is not a candidate for anticoagulation due to excessive bleeding risk. Does high-dose aspirin provide an effective alternative for stroke prevention in this setting?

My elderly patient with aortic stenosis has iron deficiency in the setting of Heyde’s syndrome. Can surgical or transcatheter aortic valve replacement (SAVR, TAVR) reduce her risk of future gastrointestinal bleeding?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Yes! Heyde’s syndrome, characterized by aortic stenosis and GI angiodysplasia1, appears to respond to SAVR or TAVR by reducing future risk of GI bleed.

Cessation of bleeding following SAVR or TAVR with gradual disappearance of angiodysplasia has been reported, in some cases despite long-term anticoagulant therapy. 2,3 In fact, GI bleed may cease in 95% of cases following AVR vs 5% in cases controlled with laparotomy with or without bowel resection.  Further supporting the potential role of valve replacement is the observation that in patients who have undergone SAVR, aortic valve restenosis usually leads to the recurrence of GI bleeding which again resolves after redo surgery.

The pathophysiology of Heyde’s syndrome involves not only increased number of angiodysplasias but higher risk of bleeding from them.  Although its exact  physiological link is unclear, hypo-oxygenation of intestinal mucosa—possibly related to cholesterol emboli with resultant vasodilatation—has been hypothesized, among many others.4   Bleeding from angiodysplasias appears related to the high shear stress across the stenotic aortic valve, leading to acquired von Willebrand’s disease (Type 2AvWF disease) and coagulopathy.4

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References

    1. Heyde EC. Gastrointestinal bleeding in aortic stenosis. N Engl J Med 1958;259:196. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200209123471122
    2. Abi-akar R, El-rassi I, Karam N et al. Treatment of Heyde’s syndrome by aortic valve replacement. Curr Cardiol Rev 2011;  7:47–49. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3131716/
    3. Pyxaras, SA, Santangelo S. Perkan A et al. Reversal of angiodysplasia-derived anemia after transcatheter aortic valve implantation. J Cardiol Cases 2012; 5: e128–e131. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S187854091100079X
    4. Kapila A, Chhabra L, Khanna A. Valvular aortic stenosis causing angiodysplasia and acquired von Willebrand’s disease: Heyde’s syndrome. BMJ Case Rep 2014 doi:10.1136/bcr-2013-201890. http://casereports.bmj.com/content/2014/bcr-2013-201890.full.pdf

 

Contributed by Biqi Zhang, Medical Student,  Harvard Medical School

 

My elderly patient with aortic stenosis has iron deficiency in the setting of Heyde’s syndrome. Can surgical or transcatheter aortic valve replacement (SAVR, TAVR) reduce her risk of future gastrointestinal bleeding?

What is the mechanism of pericardial effusion formation in heart failure?

FA Manian MD, MPH, Leave a comment

Pericardial space contains 15-35 ml of fluid under physiologic conditions (1). Pericardial formation is dependent on the ultrafiltration of plasma across epidcardial and parietal pericardial capillaries a well as interstitial fluid traversing the epicardium, and is removed by the lymphatic system (1). The prevalence of pericardial fluid in congestive heart failure is 12-20%.

Experimental animal data and observations from human studies suggest that pericardial effusion in heart failure only occurs in the setting of high right-sided filling pressures. In a retrospective study of patients with primarily left ventricular dysfunction with or without pericardial effusion, enlarged right ventricular diastolic internal dimension on echocardiography was strongly correlated with the presence of pericardial effusion while systolic and diastolic internal dimensions were not (2).  Thus in patients with heart failure and pericardial effusion, high right-sided filling pressures should be suspected.

 

References

  1. Natanzon A, Kronzon I. Pericardial and pleural effusions in congestive heart failure—anatomical, pathophysiologic, and clinical considerations. Am J Med Sci 2009;338:211-216. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19574887
  2. Kessler KM, Rodriguez D, Rahim A, et al. Echocardiographic observations regarding pericardial effusions associated with cardiac disease. Chest 1980;78:736-40. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7428456
What is the mechanism of pericardial effusion formation in heart failure?

What is the mechanism of pleural fluid formation in congestive heart failure (CHF)?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , Leave a comment

The pleural fluid in CHF originates from increase filtration of plasma across the capillaries of the visceral pleura and, more importantly, excess fluid in the interstitial spaces of the lung, both related to the increased hydrostatic and capillary wedge pressures (1).

It is postulated that leak of edema fluid into the pleural space may serve as a “safety valve” to mitigate overflooding of alveoli (2). 

Interestingly, although the pleural effusion is commonly bilateral in CHF, when unilateral, it is more likely on the right (1). The reason for this finding is unclear but several hypotheses have been put forth including compression of the azygous vein (which drains a portion of the parietal pleura of right lung) due to the dilatation of the right heart, and compression of the right pulmonary veins by an enlarged right atrium (1).  

Bonus Pearl: A minimum of 50 ml and 200 ml of pleural fluid are required for visibility on lateral and posteroanterior views of a chest radiograph, respectively (3).

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References

  1. Natanzon A, Kronzon I. Pericardial and pleural effusions in congestive heart failure—anatomical, pathophysiologic, and clinical considerations. Am J Med Sci 2009;338:211-216. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19574887
  2. Zocchi L. Physiology and pathophysiology of pleural fluid turnover. Eur Respir J 2002;20:1545-1558. http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/20/6/1545.short
  3. Mammarappallil JG, Anderson SA, Danelson KA, et al. Estimation of pleural fluid volumes on chest radiography using computed tomography volumetric analysis: an update of the visual prediction rule. J Thorac Imaging 2015;30:336-339.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25811356

 

What is the mechanism of pleural fluid formation in congestive heart failure (CHF)?

Does electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) pose a risk of embolic stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF)?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , Leave a comment

Acute embolic stroke in the setting of AF without anticoagulation after ECT has been reported in a single case report in the absence of conversion to normal sinus rhythm (1). Several cases of episodic or persistent conversion to normal sinus rhythm (NSR) in patients with AF undergoing ECT have also been reported (in the absence of embolic stroke), leading some to recommend anticoagulation therapy in such patients (2), though no firm data exist.

The mechanism by which ECT promotes cardioversion from AF to NSR is unclear as direct electrical influence of ECT on the heart is thought to be negligible (1). Arrhythmias such as atrial flutter and AF have also been reported after ECT (1). Curiously, ECT is associated with increased 5- hydroxytryptamine (5- HT2)-receptor densities of platelets in patients with depression which may enhance platelet reactivity and increase the risk of embolic stroke (3) even in the absence of cardioversion.

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References

  1. Suzuki H, Takano T, Tominaga M, et al. Acute embolic stroke in a patient with atrial fibrillation after electroconvulsive therapy. J Cardiol Cases 2010; e12-e14. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1878540910000113
  2. Petrides G, Fink M. Atrial fibrillation, anticoagulation, electroconvulsive therapy. Convulsive Therapy 1996;12:91-98. https://journals.lww.com/ectjournal/Abstract/1996/06000/Atrial_Fibrillation,_Anticoagulation,_and.4.aspx
  3. Stain-Malmgren R, Tham A, Ǻberg-Wistedt A. Increased platelet 5-HT2 receptor binding after electroconvulsive therapy in depression. J ECT 1998;14:15-24. https://europepmc.org/abstract/med/9661089
Does electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) pose a risk of embolic stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF)?

How does obesity lower serum brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) levels in patients with heart failure?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , Leave a comment

The association between high body mass index (BMI) and low serum BNP levels  has been reported in heart failure patients with diminished or preserved left ventricular systolic function (1).  

However, The exact mechanism underlying the inverse relationship of BNP levels with BMI is unclear.  Decreased production of BNP by myocytes, increased clearance of BNP and decreased sensitivity of the myocytes to stretch have been proposed (1). 

Of interest, in obese patients who undergo gastric bypass surgery, serum BNP levels increases significantly postoperatively and correlates with weight loss  (2).  

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References 

  1. Stavrakis S, Pakala A, Thomas J et al. Obesity, brain natriuretic peptide levels and mortality in patients hospitalized with heart failure and preserved left ventricular systolic function. Am J Med Sci 2013;345:211-217. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23422653
  2. Changchien EM, Shushmita A, Betti F, et al. B-type natriuretic peptide increases after gastric bypass surgery and correlates with weight loss. Surg Endosc 2011;25:2338-2343. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21424205
How does obesity lower serum brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) levels in patients with heart failure?

Is there a seasonal variation in the incidence of cardiovascular (CV) events or venous thromboembolism (VTE)?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , 1 Comment

Seasonal variation, primarily characterized by a winter peak, has been reported for acute CV events, such as acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and sudden death, aortic rupture or dissection, and ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke, and VTE (1). A meta-analysis involving patients with VTE, primarily with a diagnosis of pulmonary embolism, revealed a 20% absolute increase in the incidence of VTE during January (1).  

Potential physiological mechanisms for these observations include increased sympathetic activity, decreased loss of fluids and sodium, increase in LDL cholesterol, increase in serum fibrinogen levels and other coagulation markers and C-reactive protein, and lower vitamin D levels due to shorter daylight hours during winter months (1,2).  At least in the case of AMI in the U.S., the higher incidence in winter is not affected by climate (2).  

Respiratory virus infections as a cause of acute inflammation leading to  CV or VTE events is another intriguing explanation (3). Indeed, influenza vaccination has been associated with reduction in hospitalization for cardiac disease and stroke among the elderly (4) and, in patients with cardiovascular disease, a reduction in death due to combined cardiovascular disease events such as heart attacks and strokes (5).

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References

  1. Dentali F, Ageno W, Rancan E, et al. Seasonal and monthly variability in the incidence of venous thromboembolism. A systematic review and a meta-analysis of the literature. Thromb Haemost 2011;106:439-447. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21725580
  2. Spencer FA, Goldberg RJ, Becker RC, et al. Seasonal distribution of acute myocardial infarction in the Second National Registry of Myocardial Infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998;31:1226-33.h ttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9581712
  3. Woodhouse PR, Khaw KT, Plummer M, et al. Seasonal variations of plasma fibrinogen and factor VII activity in the elderly: winter infections and death from cardiovascular disease. Lancet 1994;343:435-39.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7508540
  4. Nichol KL, Nordin J, Mulloly J, et al. Influenza vaccination and reduction in hospitalization for cardiac disease and stroke among the elderly. N Engl J Med 2003; 348:1322-1332. http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa025028
  5. Clar C, Oseni Z, Flowers N, et al. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2015. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD005050.pub3h ttp://www.cochrane.org/CD005050/VASC_flu-vaccines-for-preventing-cardiovascular-disease  

 

 

 

 

Is there a seasonal variation in the incidence of cardiovascular (CV) events or venous thromboembolism (VTE)?

Which patients outside of ICU setting should be placed on telemetry monitoring in the hospital?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Telemetry monitoring should be used in patients at increased risk of arrhythmias during hospitalization (1). While the American Heart Association provides expert opinion on telemetry for a variety of cardiac conditions (1), a more recent review (2) makes suggestions for common cardiac and non-cardiac diagnoses based on arrhythmia risk.

Telemetry is recommended for patients admitted for implantable cardioverter- defibrillator firing, second or third degree AV block, prolonged QT interval with ventricular arrhythmia, acute heart failure, acute cerebrovascular event,  acute coronary syndrome and massive blood transfusion.

Telemetry may be beneficial in syncope with arrhythmia as a suspected cause, gastrointestinal hemorrhage after endoscopy, atrial arrhythmias on rate or rhythm control therapy, electrolyte imbalance and subacute congestive heart failure.

Telemetry is not generally indicated in chest pain with normal EKG and cardiac markers, COPD exacerbation, PE if the patient is stable and on anticoagulation, and cases requiring minor blood transfusion. 

Contributed by Joome Suh, MD, Boston, MA

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References 

(1) Drew BJ, Califf RM, Funk M, et al. Practice standards for electrocardiographic monitoring in hospital settings: an American Heart Association scientific statement from the Councils on Cardiovascular Nursing, Clinical Cardiology, and Cardiovascular Disease in the Young: endorsed by the International Society of Computerized Electrocardiology and the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses. Circulation 2004;110:2721–46. 

(2) Chen EH and Hollander JE. When do patients need admission to a telemetry bed? The Journal of Emergency Medicine 2007:33(1):53-60.

 

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Mercy Hospital-St. Louis or its affiliate healthcare centers, Mass General Hospital, Harvard Medical School or its affiliated institutions. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

Which patients outside of ICU setting should be placed on telemetry monitoring in the hospital?

Besides malignancy, what other causes of cachexia should we usually consider in our hospitalized patients?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , Leave a comment

Although cachexia , a loss of >5% body weight over 12 months,  has been reported in about 30% of patients with cancer, many other chronic conditions  commonly encountered in our hospitalized patients may also be a culprit.  In fact, cachexia is not infrequent in CHF (20%), COPD (20%), kidney failure (40%), or rheumatoid arthritis (10%) (1,2).  We also shouldn’t overlook HIV and tuberculosis as a cause.

Cachexia is a multifactorial disease which does not fully reverse with nutritional support.  Numerous mediators have been implicated, including cytokines such as tumor-necrosis factor-α, and interleukin [IL]-1 and -6, as well as transforming growth factors such as myostatin and activin A (2). 

In patients with CHF, angiotensin II appears to be a key mediator, associated with insulin resistance, depletion of  ATP in skeletal muscles, poor appetite, reduction in insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), and an increase in glucocorticoid and IL-6 levels.  All these factors contribute to “cardiac cachexia” through muscle wasting, reduced food intake and lower muscle regeneration. 

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References

  1. Morely JE, Thomas DR, Wilson M-M G. Cachexia: pathophysiology and clinical relevance. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83:735-43. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16600922
  2. Yoshida T, Delafontaine P. Mechanisms of cachexia in chronic disease states. Am J Med Sci 2015;35:250-256. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4587350/
Besides malignancy, what other causes of cachexia should we usually consider in our hospitalized patients?

What is the significance of the diagonal ear lobe crease or “Frank’s sign”?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , Leave a comment

Frank’s sign, also known as diagonal earlobe crease (DELC), has often been considered a sign of coronary artery disease (CAD), originally described in patients 60 years of age or younger in 1973 (1). Since then, the majority of clinical, angiographic, and postmortem reports seem to support the association of this physical finding (see figure) with atherosclerotic coronary disease (2,3). In addition, it may be associated with peripheral vascular disease (4) as well as cerebrovascular disease (5).

In a study of hospitalized patients, there was a significant association between DELC and cardiovascular events with a sensitivity of 43% and specificity of 70% (3).

Although the mechanism for this association is unclear, microvascular disease involving the middle ear lobe end-artery territory has been implicated (6).  Free radical oxidative stress activation of the metalloproteinases that break down type 1 collagen has also been suggested (7).

It is fair to conclude, however, that the value of this sign as a screening tool for CAD has not been firmly established and its utility in clinical practice remains uncertain, particularly in those older than 60 years of age or those with diabetes (6).

franks2

 

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 References

1. Frank ST. Aural sign of coronary-artery disease. N Engl J Med 1973;289:327-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4718047

2. Friedlander AH, Lopez-Lopez J, Velasco-Ortega E. Diagonal ear lobe crease and atherosclerosis: a review of the medical literature and dental implications. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal 2012;1:e153-9. http://www.medicinaoral.com/pubmed/medoralv17_i1_p153.pdf 

3. Rodriguez-Lopez C. Garlito-Diaz H, Madronero-Mariscal R, et al. Earlobe crease shapes and cardiovascular events. Am J Cardiol 2015;116:286-93. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0002914915011200?via%3Dihub

4. Korkmaz L, Agac MT, Acar Z, et al. Earlobe crease may provide predictive information on asymptomatic peripheral arterial disease in patients clinically ree of atherosclertotic vascular disase. Angiology  2014;65:303-7. https://reference.medscape.com/medline/abstract/23449604

5. Celik S, Erdogan T, Gedikli O, et al. Earlobe crease is associated with carotid intima-media thickness in subjects free of clinical cardiovascular disease. Atherosclerosis 2007;192:428-31. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0021915006005284

6. Shoenfeld Y, Mor R, Weinberger A, et al. Diagonal earl lobe crease and coronary risk factors. J Am Geriatr Soc 1980;28:184-7. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7365179/

7.  Fabijanic D, Culic V. Diagonal ear lobe crease and coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 2012;110:1385-6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4697048/ 

Contributed in part by Kathryn Dinh, Medical Student, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA.

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Mercy Hospital-St. Louis or its affiliate healthcare centers. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you

 

What is the significance of the diagonal ear lobe crease or “Frank’s sign”?