Coagulopathy;

Why is my patient with systemic amyloidosis at higher risk of bleeding?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

The major mechanism of bleeding tendency in primary systemic amyloidosis (AL) appears to revolve around amyloid deposit infiltration of the vasculature and musculature, leading to amyloid angiopathy, fragility, impaired vasoconstriction, tears and hemorrhage. 1,2 Other potential mechanisms include:

  • Presence of plasma inhibitors of fibrinogen conversion to fibrin
  • Deficiencies of factor X, IX and V due to their affinity for amyloid substance
  • Presence of circulating heparin-like anticoagulants
  • Uremic platelet dysfunction in the presence of renal involvement

In a study involving 36 patients with AL, ~30% had bleeding symptoms with alterations of 1 or more clotting tests found in ~85%: prolonged prothrombin time (PT) ratio (22%), activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) (65%) and thrombin time (85%).1 

Clinical manifestations of amyloidosis related to its bleeding diathesis include petechiae, ecchymoses, purpura (“raccoon eyes when periorbital), uncontrollable epistaxis, gingival bleeding, and gastrointestinal bleed or submucosal hematomas. 1-6

Due to its convenience and relative safety, a biopsy of abdominal fat or minor salivary glands is often initially performed for definitive diagnosis of amyloidosis, followed by biopsy of specific organs (eg, kidney, liver), if needed. 3,6

Due to the potential risk of bleeding complications, transjugular liver biopsy is preferred over percutaneous approach. This is because the liver capsule is not perforated with transjugular liver biopsy and if bleeding occurs, the blood returns directly into the venous system rather than into the peritoneum. 7-8 

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that AL amyloidosis is the most common type of systemic amyloidosis in western countries? This is because the incidence of the other major type of amyloidosis (AA), often related to chronic infections or inflammatory diseases, has been dropping in these countries.3

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References

  1. Gamba G, Montani N, Anesi E, et al. Clotting alterations in primary systemic amyloidosis. Haematologica 2000;85:289-92. https://moh-it.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/clotting-alterations-in-primary-systemic-amyloidosis
  2. Marconcini LAL, Stewart FM, Sonntag L, et al. AL amyloidosis complicated by persistent oral bleeding. Case Reports in Hematology 2015, Article ID 981346. https://www.hindawi.com/journals/crihem/2015/981346/
  3. Desport E, Bridoux F, Sirac C, et al. AL Amyloidosis. Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases 2012, 7:54. https://ojrd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1750-1172-7-54
  4. Yoshii S, Mabe K, Nosho K, et al. Submucosal hematoma is a highly suggestive finding for amyloid light-chain amyloidosis: Two case reports. W J Gastroenterol 2012;4:434-37. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23125904
  5. Kon T, Nakagawa N, Yoshikawa F, et al. Systemic immunoglobulin light-chain amyloidosis presenting hematochezia as the initial symptoms. Clin J Gastroenterol 2016;9:243. http://europepmc.org/article/med/27318996
  6. Petre S, Shah IA, Gilani N. Review article:gastrointestinal amyloidosis-clinical features, diagnosis and therapy. Alim Pharmacol Ther 2008;27:1006-16. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18363891
  7. Grant A, Neuberger J. Guidelines on the use of liver biopsy in clinical practice. Gut 1999;45(Suppl IV):IV1-IV11. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10485854
  8. Dohan A, Guerrache Y, Boudiaf M, et al. Transjugular liver biopsy: Indications, technique and results. Diagnostic and Interventional Imaging 2014;95:11-15. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24007769
Why is my patient with systemic amyloidosis at higher risk of bleeding?

Why is my diabetic patient complaining of arm pain and localized edema for couple of weeks without an obvious cause?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Aside from the usual suspects associated with a painful extremity (eg, trauma, deep venous thrombosis and soft tissue infections), think of spontaneous diabetic myonecrosis (DMN), also known as diabetic muscle infarction (1-3).

DMN is characterized by abrupt onset of painful swelling of the affected muscle, most often of the lower extremities, but also occasionally upper extremities. DMN occurs in patients with longstanding DM whose blood glucose control has deteriorated over time, often with nephropathy, retinopathy and/or neuropathy (1-3).

Couple of things to remember when considering DMN in your differential of a painful extremity. First, except for localized edema and tenderness over the involved muscle, the exam may be unremarkable. Specifically, there is no erythema or signs of compartment syndrome and fever is absent in the great majority of patients (~90%) (2). Even white blood cell count and creatine kinase (CK) are usually normal. The reason for normal CK at presentation is not clear but CK might have already peaked by the time of patient presentation (3). In contrast, C-reactive protein (CRP) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) are usually elevated (>80%) (1).

MRI (without contrast in patients with renal insufficiency) is the imaging of choice with muscle enlargement and edema with hyperintense signal on T2-weighted images and other changes, including perifascial, perimuscular and or subcutaneous edema (1-3). Muscle biopsy is not currently recommended because of its adverse impact on time to symptomatic improvement. Non-surgical therapy, with rest, analgesia and glycemic control is usually recommended (1-3).

 
Though its exact cause is still unclear, atherosclerosis, diabetic microangiopathy, vasculitis with thrombosis and ischemia-reperfusion injury have been posited as potential precipitants for DMN. The role of anti-phospholipid syndrome, particularly in patients with type I DM, is unclear (1,2).

 
Bonus pearl: Did you know that symptoms of DMN may last for weeks with at least one-third of patients having a recurrence in the same muscle or elsewhere (1)?

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Reference
1. Horton WB, Taylor JS, Ragland TJ, et al. Diabetic muscle infarction: a systematic review. BMJ Open Diabetes Research and Care 2015;3:e000082.
2. Trujillo-Santos AJ. Diabetic muscle infarction. An underdiagnosed complication of long-standing diabetes. Diabetes Care 2003;26:211-15.
3. Diabetes muscle infarction in end-stage renal disease:A scoping review on epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment. World J Nephrol 2018;7:58-64.

Why is my diabetic patient complaining of arm pain and localized edema for couple of weeks without an obvious cause?

My 65 year old patient on chronic warfarin happens to have diffuse tracheobronchial calcification on her chest X-ray. Could warfarin be the culprit?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Absolutely! Although tracheobronchial calcification (TBC) is often found as part of normal aging process in the elderly, especially women, long-term warfarin use has also been implicated as a cause of TBC, even among those with less advanced age (1-4).

In a cohort of patients 60 years of age or older, radiographic evidence of trachea and bronchi calcification was found in 47% of patients on warfarin (mean age 64 years, mean duration of treatment 6 years) compared to 19% of controls (1). A positive correlation between the duration of warfarin therapy and increased levels of calcification was also found.  Fortunately, TBC is a benign finding and has no health consequences.

As for the mechanism for this rather intriguing phenomenon, the inhibition of a vitamin K-dependent protein that prevents calcification of cartilaginous tissue seems to be the most plausible (1). Although we often think of vitamin-K dependent factors in relation to the coagulation cascade, several vitamin K-dependent proteins also play an important role in the inhibition of calcification in soft tissues and blood vessels (eg, matrix Gla protein-MGP) (5,6).

In fact, rats maintained on warfarin undergo calcification of cartilage and elastic connective tissue, while exposure of the fetus to warfarin during pregnancy is associated with calcifications in and around joints, airway and nasal cartilages (4,7). These observations further support a causative role of warfarin in inducing TBC.

 

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that MGP deficiency in humans is known as the Keutel syndrome, a rare autosomal recessive disease characterized by several characteristic physical features, including severe cartilage calcifications and depressed nasal bridge?

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References

  1. Moncada RM, Venta LA, Venta ER, et al. Tracheal and bronchial cartilaginous rings: warfarin sodium-induced calcification. Radiology 1992;184:437-39. https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/10.1148/radiology.184.2.1620843
  2. Thoongsuwan N, Stern EJ. Warfarin-induced tracheobronchial calcification. J thoracic Imaging 2003;18:110-12. https://journals.lww.com/thoracicimaging/Abstract/2003/04000/Warfarin_Induced_Tracheobronchial_Calcification.12.aspx
  3. Nour SA, Nour HA, Mehta J, et al. Tracheobronchial calcification due to warfarin therapy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2014;189:e73. https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.201305-0975IM
  4. Joshi A, Berdon WE, Ruzal-Shapiro C, et al. CT detection of the tracheobronchial calcification in an 18 year-old on maintenance warfarin sodium therapy. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2000;175:921-22. https://www.ajronline.org/doi/full/10.2214/ajr.175.3.1750921
  5. Wen L, Chen J, Duan L, et al. Vitamin K-dependent proteins involved in bone and cardiovascular health (review). Molecular Medicine Reports 2018;18:3-15. https://www.spandidos-publications.com/mmr/18/1/3/abstract \
  6. Theuwissen E, Smit E, Vermeer C. The role of vitamin K in soft-tissue calcification. Adv Nutr 2012; 3:166-173. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3648717/pdf/166.pdf

7.      Price PA, Williamson MK, Haba T, et al. Excessive mineralization with growth plate closure in rats on chronic warfarin treatment. Proc Natl Acad Sci  U.S.A 1982;79:7734-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6984192

My 65 year old patient on chronic warfarin happens to have diffuse tracheobronchial calcification on her chest X-ray. Could warfarin be the culprit?

My elderly patient on chronic warfarin with recent hospitalization for soft tissue infection is now readmitted with gastrointestinal bleed and a newly-discovered supra-therapeutic INR? Why did her INR jump?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Assuming no recent changes in the dose of warfarin, one potential culprit may be her recent antibiotic exposure. Of the long list of antibiotics associated with elevated INR, quinolones (e.g. ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, macrolides (e.g. azithromycin), and azole antifungals (e.g. fluconazole) are generally thought to carry the highest risk of warfarin toxicity, while amoxacillin and cephalexin may be associated with a more modest risk. 1-3

Other drugs such as amiodarone (Did she have atrial fibrillation during her recent hospitalization?), acetaminophen (Has she been receiving at least 2 g/day for several consecutive days?), and increasing dose of levothyroxine (Was she thought to be hypothyroid recently?) should also be considered.3,4

Also remember to ask about herbal supplements (eg, boldo-fenugreek, dong quai, danshen) that may potentiate the effect of warfarin. 3 Of course, poor nutrition in the setting of recent illness might have also played a role.5

As far as the mechanisms for drug interaction with warfarin, some drugs act as cytochrome p450 inhibitors (thus reducing the metabolism of warfarin), while others influence the pharmacodynamics of warfarin by inhibiting the synthesis or increasing the clearance of vitamin K-2 dependent coagulation factors.3

Antibiotics may increase the risk of major bleeding through disruption of intestinal flora that synthesize vitamin K-2 with or without interference with the metabolism of warfarin through cytochrome p450 isozymes inhibition.

Check out a related pearl on P4P: https://pearls4peers.com/2015/06/25/is-there-anyway-to-predict-a-significant-rise-in-inr-from-antibiotic-use-in-patients-who-are-also-on-warfarin  

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References

  1. Baillargeon J, Holmes HM, Lin Y, et al. Concurrent use of warfarin and antibiotics and the risk of bleeding in older adults. Am J Med. 2012 February ; 125(2): 183–189. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22269622
  2. Juurlink DN. Drug interactions with warfarin: what every physician should know. CMAJ, 2007;177: 369-371. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1942100/pdf/20070814s00018p369.pdf
  3. Ageno W, Gallus AS, Wittkowsky A, et al. Oral anticoagulant therapy: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(2 Suppl):e44S-e88S. doi:10.1378/chest.11-2292.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315269
  4. Hughes GJ, Patel PN, Saxena N. Effect of acetaminophen on international normalized ratio in patients receiving warfarin therapy. Pharmacotherapy 2011;31:591-7. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21923443
  5. Kumar S, Gupta D, Rau SS. Supratherapeutic international normalized ratio: an indicator of chronic malnutrition due to severely debilitating gastrointestinal disease. Clin Pract. 2011;1:e21. doi:10.4081/cp.2011.e21. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3981245

 

Contributed by Rachel Weitzman, Medical Student, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA.

My elderly patient on chronic warfarin with recent hospitalization for soft tissue infection is now readmitted with gastrointestinal bleed and a newly-discovered supra-therapeutic INR? Why did her INR jump?

Is there any utility to laboratory testing for inherited thrombophilia or antiphospholipid syndrome in my hospitalized patient with unprovoked acute pulmonary embolism?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

There is virtually no utility to obtaining heritable thrombophilia testing in acute hospital setting. In fact, there are potential harms due to false-positive and false-negative results which in turn may lead to increasing anxiety in the patient and added cost due to repeat testing.

As many tests obtained as part of this workup are functional assays—eg, the protein S, C, or antithrombin activity, and activated protein C resistance (often used to screen for factor V Leiden)— they are easily impacted by the physiologic effects of acute thrombosis as well as all anticoagulants.1

More importantly, testing for inherited thrombophilia will not impact management in the acute setting, as decisions regarding duration of anticoagulation are often made later in the outpatient setting. The proper time to evaluate the patient for inherited thrombophilias (if indicated) is at least one week following discontinuation of anticoagulation (minimum 3 months from the time of the index event). 2 

Testing for antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) may be considered in this setting though it should be noted that the lupus anticoagulant assay is impacted by nearly every anticoagulant, resulting in frequent false-positive results1, and therefore should be performed before initiation of these agents (or delayed until later if anticoagulation has already begun). A false-positive result has downstream implications as many patients with acute, uncomplicated venous thromboembolism (VTE) are discharged on a direct oral anticoagulant (DOAC), and antiphospholipid syndrome is currently considered a relative contraindication to the use of DOACs in VTE.

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 References
1. Moll, S. “Thrombophilia: Clinical-practical aspects.” J Thromb Thrombolysis 2015;39:367-78. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25724822
2. Connors JM. “Thrombophilia Testing and Venous Thrombosis.” N Engl J Med 2017; 377:1177-1187. http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra1700365 

 

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

 

 

Is there any utility to laboratory testing for inherited thrombophilia or antiphospholipid syndrome in my hospitalized patient with unprovoked acute pulmonary embolism?

Should prothrombin complex concentrates be used to reverse anticoagulation from direct factor Xa inhibitors?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Due to insufficient and occasionally conflicting evidence, the use of prothrombin complex concentrates (PCCs) for reversal of direct factor Xa inhibitors (eg, rivaroxaban, apixaban, and edoxaban) is NOT recommended.1 This is because PCCs have no effect on the anti-Xa assay, the most accurate measure of anticoagulation for direct factor Xa inhibitors.

Although several in vitro and in vivo studies initially suggested that PCCs may be effective for this purpose, anti-Xa activity has not been measured in these studies2-4; PT and aPTT are not reflective of the anticoagulation activity of direct factor Xa inhibitors.

In fact, a 2014 study found no difference in the anti-Xa activity between 11 patients on rivaroxaban who were given a 4-factor PCC (Beriplex®, the European brand name for Kcentra®) and 12 patients on rivaroxaban receiving saline.5 Though small, this is the best published in vivo data to date examining the effect of 4-factor PCC on the anti-Xa levels of patients on direct factor Xa inhibitors.

A theoretical concern with the use of PCCs is increased risk of thrombosis when the therapeutic effect of these direct oral anticoagulant (DOACs) is gone (half-life ~12 h) while the thrombogenic effects of PCCs persist (eg, in critically ill, postoperative, or sedentary patients).

The good news is that more specific reversal agents are in the pipeline. 1 Stay tuned! 

 

References:

  1. Dzik WH. “Reversal of oral factor Xa inhibitors by prothrombin complex concentrates: a re-appraisal.” J Thromb Haemost 2015;13 (Suppl 1):S187-94. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26149022
  2. Perzborn E, Heutmeier S, Laux V, et al. “Reversal of rivaroxaban-induced anticoagulation with prothrombin complex concentrate, activated prothrombin complex concentrate and recombinant activated factor VII in vitro.” Thromb Res 2014 Apr;133:671-81. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24529498
  3. Eerenberg ES, Kamphuisen PW, Sijpkens MK, et al. “Reversal of rivaroxaban and dabigatran by prothrombin complex concentrate: a randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study in healthy subjects.” Circulation 2011 Oct 4;124:1573-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21900088
  4. Zahir H, Brown KS, Vandell AG, et al. “Edoxaban effects on bleeding following punch biopsy and reversal by a 4-factor prothrombin complex concentrate.” Circulation 2015 Jan 6;131:82-90. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25403645
  5. Levi M, Moore KT, Castillejos CF, et al. “Comparison of three-factor and four-factor prothrombin complex concentrates regarding reversal of the anticoagulant effects of rivaroxaban in healthy volunteers.” J Thromb Haemost 2014;12:1428-36. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24811969

Contributed by Hanny Al-Samkari MD, Mass General Hospital, Boston, MA.

 

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Should prothrombin complex concentrates be used to reverse anticoagulation from direct factor Xa inhibitors?

What is the significance of a prolonged activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) in my patient with suspected antiphospholipid syndrome (APS)?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , Leave a comment

APS is an acquired hypercoagulable state which presents classically as recurrent arterial and/or venous thrombosis and is a major cause of late first- and second-trimester spontaneous fetal loss. In addition to thrombotic complications, diagnosis of APS requires the presence of ≥ 1 of the following antiphospholipid antibodies on 2 occasions ≥12 weeks apart: 1) anti-ß2-glycoprotein 1 antibodies; 2) anticardiolipin antibodies; and 3) lupus anticoagulant (LA)1.  

An unexpected prolongation of aPTT may be a clue to the presence of APS and may be explained by the in vitro prevention of the assembly of the prothrombinase complex—which catalyzes the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin— by LA2,3.  

Because the phospholipid component of the reagent used in aPTT tests determines its sensitivity to LA, aPTT results may vary, influenced by the type and concentration of phospholipids used in the assay. Other factors such as acute phase reaction associated with increased fibrinogen and factor VIII levels may also impact the results by shortening the aPTT and potentially masking a weak LA2.

 

 

References 

  1. Giannakopoulos B, Passam F, Ioannou Y, Krilis SA. How we diagnose the antiphospholipid syndrome.Blood. 2009;113:985-94.
  2. 2. Abo SM, DeBari VA. Laboratory evaluation of the antiphospholipid syndrome. Ann Clin Lab Sci 2007;37:3-14.
  3. Smock KJ, Rodgers GM. Laboratory identification of lupus anticoagulants. Am J Hematol. 2009;84(7):440-2.

 

 

Contributed by Ricardo Ortiz, medical student, Harvard Medical School

What is the significance of a prolonged activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) in my patient with suspected antiphospholipid syndrome (APS)?

My elderly patient with aortic stenosis has iron deficiency in the setting of Heyde’s syndrome. Can surgical or transcatheter aortic valve replacement (SAVR, TAVR) reduce her risk of future gastrointestinal bleeding?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Yes! Heyde’s syndrome, characterized by aortic stenosis and GI angiodysplasia1, appears to respond to SAVR or TAVR by reducing future risk of GI bleed.

Cessation of bleeding following SAVR or TAVR with gradual disappearance of angiodysplasia has been reported, in some cases despite long-term anticoagulant therapy. 2,3 In fact, GI bleed may cease in 95% of cases following AVR vs 5% in cases controlled with laparotomy with or without bowel resection.  Further supporting the potential role of valve replacement is the observation that in patients who have undergone SAVR, aortic valve restenosis usually leads to the recurrence of GI bleeding which again resolves after redo surgery.

The pathophysiology of Heyde’s syndrome involves not only increased number of angiodysplasias but higher risk of bleeding from them.  Although its exact  physiological link is unclear, hypo-oxygenation of intestinal mucosa—possibly related to cholesterol emboli with resultant vasodilatation—has been hypothesized, among many others.4   Bleeding from angiodysplasias appears related to the high shear stress across the stenotic aortic valve, leading to acquired von Willebrand’s disease (Type 2AvWF disease) and coagulopathy.4

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References

    1. Heyde EC. Gastrointestinal bleeding in aortic stenosis. N Engl J Med 1958;259:196. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200209123471122
    2. Abi-akar R, El-rassi I, Karam N et al. Treatment of Heyde’s syndrome by aortic valve replacement. Curr Cardiol Rev 2011;  7:47–49. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3131716/
    3. Pyxaras, SA, Santangelo S. Perkan A et al. Reversal of angiodysplasia-derived anemia after transcatheter aortic valve implantation. J Cardiol Cases 2012; 5: e128–e131. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S187854091100079X
    4. Kapila A, Chhabra L, Khanna A. Valvular aortic stenosis causing angiodysplasia and acquired von Willebrand’s disease: Heyde’s syndrome. BMJ Case Rep 2014 doi:10.1136/bcr-2013-201890. http://casereports.bmj.com/content/2014/bcr-2013-201890.full.pdf

 

Contributed by Biqi Zhang, Medical Student,  Harvard Medical School

 

My elderly patient with aortic stenosis has iron deficiency in the setting of Heyde’s syndrome. Can surgical or transcatheter aortic valve replacement (SAVR, TAVR) reduce her risk of future gastrointestinal bleeding?