Autoimmune diseases

Should I consider acute acalculous cholecystitis in my elderly ambulatory patient admitted with right upper quadrant pain?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Short answer: Yes! Although we usually associate acute acalculous cholecystitis (AAC) with critically ill patients (eg, with sepsis, trauma, shock, major burns) in ICUs, AAC is not as rare as we might think in ambulatory patients. In fact, a 7 year study of AAC involving multiple centers reported that AAC among outpatients was increasing in prevalence and accounted for 77% of all cases (1)!

 
Although the pathophysiology of ACC is not fully understood, bile stasis and ischemia of the gallbladder either due to microvascular or macrovascular pathology have been implicated as potential causes (2). One study found that 72% of outpatients who developed ACC had atherosclerotic disease associated with hypertension, coronary, peripheral or cerebral vascular disease, diabetes or congestive heart failure (1). Interestingly, in contrast to calculous cholecystitis, “multiple arterial occlusions” have been observed on pathological examination of the gallbladder in at least some patients with ACC and accordingly a name change to “acute ischemic cholecystitis” has been proposed (3).

 
AAC can also complicate acute mesenteric ischemia and may herald critical ischemia and mesenteric infarction (3). The fact that cystic artery is a terminal branch artery probably doesn’t help and leaves the gallbladder more vulnerable to ischemia when arterial blood flow is compromised irrespective of the cause (4).

 
Of course, besides vascular ischemia there are numerous other causes of ACC, including infectious (eg, viral hepatitis, cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, Salmonella, brucellosis, malaria, Rickettsia and enteroviruses), as well as many non-infectious causes such as vasculitides and, more recently, check-point inhibitor toxicity (1,5-8).

 
Bonus Pearl: Did you know that in contrast to cholecystitis associated with gallstones (where females and 4th and 5th decade age groups predominate), ACC in ambulatory patients is generally more common among males and older age groups (mean age 65 y) (1)?

 

If you liked this post, download the app and sign up under MENU to catch future pearls straight into your inbox, all for free! 

 

References
1. Savoca PE, Longo WE, Zucker KA, et al. The increasing prevalence of acalculous cholecystitis in outpatients: Result of a 7-year study. Ann Surg 1990;211: 433-37. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1358029/pdf/annsurg00170-0061.pdf
2. Huffman JL, Schenker S. Acute acalculous cholecystitis: A review. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010;8:15-22. https://www.cghjournal.org/article/S1542-3565(09)00880-5/pdf
3. Hakala T, Nuutinene PJO, Ruokonen ET, et al. Microangiopathy in acute acalculous cholecystitis Br J Surg 1997;84:1249-52. https://bjssjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-2168.1997.02775.x?sid=nlm%3Apubmed
4. Melo R, Pedro LM, Silvestre L, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis as a rare manifestation of chronic mesenteric ischemia. A case report. Int J Surg Case Rep 2016;25:207-11. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4941110/
5. Aguilera-Alonso D, Median EVL, Del Rosal T, et al. Acalculous cholecystitis in a pediatric patient with Plasmodium falciparum infection: A case report and literature review. Ped Infect Dis J 2018;37: e43-e45. https://journals.lww.com/pidj/pages/articleviewer.aspx?year=2018&issue=02000&article=00020&type=Fulltext  
6. Kaya S, Eskazan AE, Ay N, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis due to viral hepatitis A. Case Rep Infect Dis 2013;Article ID 407182. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3784234/pdf/CRIM.ID2013-407182.pdf
7. Simoes AS, Marinhas A, Coelho P, et al. Acalculous acute cholecystitis during the course of an enteroviral infection. BMJ Case Rep 2013;12. https://casereports.bmj.com/content/12/4/e228306
8. Abu-Sbeih H, Tran CN, Ge PS, et al. Case series of cancer patients who developed cholecystitis related to immune checkpoint inhibitor treatment. J ImmunoTherapy of Cancer 2019;7:118. https://jitc.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40425-019-0604-2

 

 

Should I consider acute acalculous cholecystitis in my elderly ambulatory patient admitted with right upper quadrant pain?

My patient with primary Sjogren’s syndrome has now been diagnosed with COPD despite lack of a significant smoking history. Is there a connection between Sjogren’s syndrome and COPD?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , Leave a comment

Increasing body of evidence suggests that COPD in patients with primary Sjögren’s syndrome (PSS) is not uncommon even among those who never smoked (1).

 
A 2015 study of patients with PSS reported that overall 41% of patients with PSS, including 30% of those who never smoked, fulfilled the Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) criteria for COPD. More specifically, pulmonary function tests (PFTs) showed decreased vital capacity (VC), forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV-1)  and DLCO in patients with PSS. Importantly, lab inflammatory and serological features were poorly associated with PFT results, while radiographic signs of interstitial lung disease (ILG) were absent in one-half of patients with PSS and COPD (1).

 
A longitudinal study with a mean follow-up of 11 years found a 37% rate of development of COPD among patients with PSS (2). Another related study reported a poor correlation between respiratory symptoms and COPD disease as assessed by PFTs in PSS, with the authors recommending that PFTs be performed “liberally” in all patients with PSS regardless of symptoms (3).

 
Lastly, a population-based cohort study of female adults found significantly higher rate of COPD among patients with PSS compared to controls (4).

 
Although the exact pathogenic mechanism behind PSS-associated COPD is unclear, xerotrachea and impaired mucocilliary clearance, as well as inflammatory infiltrates in the exocrine glands of the airways, all leading to physical obstruction and bronchial hyperreactivity have been suggested (1).

 

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that COPD is associated with many other autoimmune diseases (eg, rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus), and a genetic link has been implicated between COPD and autoimmunity? (5,6).

 

If you liked this post, sign up under MENU and catch future pearls right into your mailbox!

References
1. Nilsson AM, Diaz S, Theander E, et al. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is common in never-smoking patients with primary Sjögren’s syndrome. J Rheumatol 2015;42:464-71. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270907531_Chronic_Obstructive_Pulmonary_Disease_Is_Common_in_Never-smoking_Patients_with_Primary_Sjogren_Syndrome
2. Mandl T, Diaz S, Ekberg O, et al. Frequent development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in primary SS-result of a longitudinal follow-up. Rheumatology 2012;51:941-46. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221760110_Frequent_development_of_chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease_in_primary_SS-results_of_a_longitudinal_follow-up
3. Bolmgren VS, Olssson P, Wollmer P, et al. Respiratory symptoms are poor predictors of concomitant chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in patients with primary Sjögren’s syndrome. Rheumatol Int 2017;37:813-18. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00296-017-3678-5.pdf
4. Shen TC, Wu BR, Chen HJ, et al. Risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in female adults with primary Sjögren’s syndrome. A nationwide population-based cohort study. Medicine 2016; 95:1-6. http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/26962839
5. Hemminki K, Liu X, Ji J et al. Subsequent COPD and lung cancer in patients with autoimmune disease. Eur Respir J 2011;37:463-74. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21282811
6. Ji X, Niu X, Qian J, et al. A phenome-wide association study uncovers a role for autoimmunity in the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Resp Cell Mol Biol 2018;58:777-79. https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/10.1165/rcmb.2017-0409LE

My patient with primary Sjogren’s syndrome has now been diagnosed with COPD despite lack of a significant smoking history. Is there a connection between Sjogren’s syndrome and COPD?

Can Salmonella enterocolitis predispose to inflammatory bowel disease?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , Leave a comment

Yes, enteric pathogens such as Salmonella can predispose patients to inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) through several potential mechanisms: 1

  • Causing permanent changes in the intestinal microbiota
  • Altering the epithelial barrier in the gut
  • Altering the interaction between the body’s immune system and the intestines

More specifically, Salmonella utilizes oxidized endogenous sulfur compounds released during acute intestinal inflammation to outgrow the fermentative microbiota of the colon.2  In addition, the neutrophil response to Salmonella infection can alter the constituent microbiome.3 Salmonella also modifies the tight junctions in the intestinal epithelium as it invades, thus activating the immune system (particularly toll-like-receptors), and creating a pro-inflammatory state with structural loss of the intestinal mucosa. 4 Lastly, Salmonella promotes cytokine release and neutrophil migration through pathogen recognition receptors, leaving the intestine in a pro-inflammatory state even following resolution of the infection. 1

Keep in mind that initial Salmonella infection may also mimic IBD, as it causes diffuse lesions in the colon similar to ulcerative colitis, and may cause ileitis in some patients. Stool cultures and biopsies of the colonic mucosa should help differentiate IBD from Salmonella infection. 5

 

References

  1. Schultz BM, Paduro CA, Salazar GA, et al. A potential role of Salmonella infection in the onset of inflammatory bowel diseases. Front Immunol 2017;8:191. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5329042/pdf/fimmu-08-00191.pdf
  2. Winter SE, Baumler AJ. A breathtaking feat: to compete with the gut microbiota, Salmonella drives its host to provide a respiratory electron acceptor. Gut Microbes 2011;2:58-60. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3225798/pdf/gmic0201_0058.pdf
  3. Gill N, Ferreira RB, Antunes LC, et al. Neutrophil elastase alters the murine gut microbiota resulting in enhanced Salmonella colonization. PLoS ONE 2012;7:e49646. http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0049646
  4. Bueno SM, Riquelme S, Riedel CA, et al. Mechanisms used by virulent Salmonella to impair dendritic cell function and evade adaptive immunity. Immunology 2012;137:28-36. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22703384
  5. De Hertogh G, Geboes K. Crohn’s disease and infections: a complex relationship. MedGenMed 2004;6:14. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1435589

 

 

 

 

 

 

Contributed by Yasmin Islam MD, Mass General Hospital, Boston, MA.

Can Salmonella enterocolitis predispose to inflammatory bowel disease?

What complications should I look for in my hospitalized patient suspected of having check-point inhibitor toxicity?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , Leave a comment

Targeting the host immune system via monoclonal antibodies known as checkpoint inhibitors (CPIs) is an exciting new strategy aimed at interfering with the ability of cancer cells to evade the patient’s existing antitumor immune response. CPIs have been shown to be effective in a wide variety of cancers and are likely to be the next major breakthrough for solid tumors1-3. Unfortunately, serious—at times fatal— immune-related Adverse Events (irAEs) have also been associated with their use4,5.

IrAEs occur in the majority of patients treated with nivolumab (a programmed death 1 [PD-1] CPI] or ipilimumab (a cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 [CTLA-4] CPI)1. The severity of irAEs may range from mild (grade 1) to very severe (grade 4). Grading system categories discussed in more detail at link below:

https://www.eortc.be/services/doc/ctc/CTCAE_4.03_2010-06-14_QuickReference_5x7.pdf.

Although fatigue, diarrhea, pruritis, rash and nausea are not uncommon, more severe grade (3 or 4) irAEs may also occur (Figure). The most frequent grade 3 or 4 irAEs are diarrhea and colitis; elevated ALT or AST are also reported, particularly when CPIs are used in combination. Hypophysitis, thyroiditis, adrenal insufficiency, pneumonitis, enteritis sparing the colon with small bowel obstruction, and hematologic and neurologic toxicities may also occur.

Generally, skin and GI toxicities appear first, within a few weeks of therapy, followed by hepatitis and endocrinopathies which usually present between weeks 12 and 245. High suspicion and early diagnosis is key to successful management of irAEs.

Figure. Selected irAEs associated with nivolumab and ipilimumab (adapted from reference 1).

chceky2

References

  1. Larkin J, Chiarion-Sileni V, Gonzalez R, et al. Combined nivolumab and ipilimumab or monotherapy in untreated melanoma. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:23-34.
  2. Borghaei H, Paz-Ares L, Horn L, et al. Nivolumab versus docetaxel in advanced nonsquamous non-small-cell lung cancer. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:1627-1639.
  3. Brahmer J, Reckamp KL, Baas P, et al. Nivolumab versus docetaxel in advanced squamous-cell non-small-cell lung cancer. N Engl J Med 2015; 373:123-135.
  4. Weber JS, Yang JC, Atkins MB, Disis ML. Toxicities of immunotherapy for the practitioner. J Clin Oncol 2015;33:2092-2099.
  5. Weber JS. Practical management of immune-related adverse events from immune checkpoint protein antibodies for the oncologist. Am Soc Clin Oncol Educ Book. 2012:174-177.

Contributed by Kerry Reynolds, MD, Mass General Hospital, Boston.

 

 

 

 

What complications should I look for in my hospitalized patient suspected of having check-point inhibitor toxicity?

My patient with autoimmune hepatitis has been on less than 20 mg of prednisone daily for the past month and now complains of dyspnea. What is the dose of prednisone that should make me worry about Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PCP) in her?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , Leave a comment

The risk of infection in patients on glucocorticoids (GCs) is likely determined not only by the dose and duration of treatment but also by the nature of the underlying disease requiring GC therapy (eg, asthma, autoimmune disease, malignancy),   use of additional immunosuppressants, as well as individual host sensitivity to the effects of GCs1,2.  For these reasons, it is often difficult to determine how much GCs will be too much for a specific patient when discussing opportunistic infections such as PCP in patients without HIV infection.

In patients with an autoimmune disease such as ours, as little as 12 mg/day of prednisone on presentation or as few as 5 days of GC therapy has been associated with PCP3.  Because the critical amount of immunosuppression necessary for PCP to cause disease is unclear4, and autoimmunity is often associated with T-cell dysregulation5, it is prudent to consider PCP in the differential of diagnosis of dyspnea (along with fever or pulmonary infiltrates if present) in this patient despite not receiving “high” doses of prednisone daily.  It is also important to remember that many cases of PCP occur during GC taper4.

 

References

  1. Lionakis MS, Kontoyiannis DP. Glucocorticoids and invasive fungal infections. Lancet 2003;362:1828-38.
  2. Youssef J, Novosad SA, Winthrop KL. Infection risk and safety of corticosteroids. Rheum Dis Clin N Am 2016; 42; 157-176.
  3. Yale SH, Limper AH. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients without acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: associated illness and prior corticosteroid therapy. Mayo Clin Proc 1996;71:5-13.
  4. Sepkowitz KA, Brown AE, Armstrong D. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia without acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Intern Med 1995;1125-28.
  5. Arkwright PD, Abinun M, Cant AJ. Autoimmunity in human immunodeficiency diseases. Blood 2002;99:2694-2707.
My patient with autoimmune hepatitis has been on less than 20 mg of prednisone daily for the past month and now complains of dyspnea. What is the dose of prednisone that should make me worry about Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PCP) in her?