Corticosteroids

My elderly patient has a WBC count of 60,000 without obvious hematologic malignancy.  How likely is it that his leukocytosis is related to an infection?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Although extremely high WBC count in the absence of myeloproliferative disease may be associated with solid tumors and other causes, infections are often the most common cause of leukemoid reaction (LR), including tuberculosis, Clostridiodes difficile colitis, shigellosis, salmonellosis, pneumonia, abscesses, as well as  parasitic infections (eg, malaria), fungal infections (mucormycosis), and viral diseases (eg, HIV, EBV, Chickungunya fever).1-4   

In a study of 173 hospitalized patients (mean age 69 y) with leukemoid reaction (defined in this study as WBC ≥30,000/µl), infection was the most common cause of LR (48%), followed by tissue ischemia/stress (28%), inflammation (eg, pancreatitis, diverticulitis without perforation) and obstetric diagnoses (7% each) and malignant tumor (5%).1 

In the same study, the most common infections were “sepsis”, pneumonia and urinary tract infections.  Bacteremia was documented in 13%, while Clostridiodes difficile toxin assay was positive in 7% of patients.  The highest WBC counts were observed in patients with either a positive blood culture or positive C. difficile toxin.  In-hospital mortality rate was very high at 62%.

Similarly, in a study involving 105 hospitalized patients, the most common cause was infection, followed by malignancy and other causes. 2 In a smaller study of 25 patients with “extreme” leukocytosis (defined as WBC ≥50,000/µl) infection was considered the cause in 52% and malignancy in 44% of patients; about one-third were bacteremic (eg, Pseudomonas sp, Streptococcus pneumoniae, E. coli).3

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that besides infections and malignancy, drugs (eg, corticosteroids, epinephrine) and ingestion of ethylene glycol have also been associated with LR? 1,3,4

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References

  1. Potasman I, Grupper M. Leukemoid reaction:Spectrum and prognosis of 173 adult patients. Clin Infect Dis 2013;57:e177-81. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23994818/
  2. Portich JP, Faulhaber GAM. Leudemoid reaction: A 21st-century study. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31765058/
  3. Halkes CJM, Dijstelbloem HM, Eelman Rooda SJ, et al. Extreme leucocytosis: not always leukaemia. The Netherlands J Med 2007;65:248-51. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17656811/
  4. Kumar P, Charaniya R, Sahoo R, et al. Leukemoid reaction in Chickungunya fever. J Clin Diagn Res 2016;10:OD05-OD06. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4948452/

 

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Mercy Hospital-St. Louis or its affiliate healthcare centers. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

My elderly patient has a WBC count of 60,000 without obvious hematologic malignancy.  How likely is it that his leukocytosis is related to an infection?

When should I consider systemic corticosteroids in my patient with Covid-19?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , Leave a comment

As of July 30, 2020, The National Institute of Health (NIH) Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Guidelines Panel recommends using dexamethasone 6 mg per day for up to 10 days for the treatment of Covid-19 in patients who are mechanically ventilated (“Strong” recommendation based on 1 or more randomized trials) with a a less strong recommendation (“Moderate”) in those who require supplemental oxygen but who are not mechanically ventilated.1

These recommendations appear to primarily stem from a multicenter, open label randomized controlled trial of dexamethasone vs standard of care in hospitalized patients in United Kingdom, 2 with treated group receiving dexamethasone 6 mg IV or orally daily for 10 days or until hospital discharge (whichever came first).  Mortality at 28 days was significantly lower among patients on mechanical ventilation who received dexamethasone (29.3% vs 41.4%, rate ratio 0.64, 95% CI, 0.51-0.81) and in those receiving supplemental oxygen without mechanical ventilation (23.3% vs 26.2%). The risk of progression to invasive mechanical ventilation was also lower in the dexamethasone group. No significant difference in mortality was found in patients who did not require supplemental oxygen. 

Retrospective and case series studies have reported conflicting results on the efficacy of corticosteroid for the treatment of covid-19. 3-10 That’s why despite its limitations (open label, wide range of 02 supplementation, few patients receiving remdesvir), the randomized controlled trial discussed above should guide our decision making on the use of corticosteroids in patients with Covid-19.

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References

  1. NIH. The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Guidelines. https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/immune-based-therapy/immunomodulators/corticosteroids/ Accessed August 6, 2020.
  2. Horby P, Lim WS, Emberson JR, et al. Dexamethasone in hospitalized patients with Covid-19—Preliminary report. N Engl J Med 2020; July 17, 2020. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2021436
  3. Keller MJ, Kitsis EA, Arora S, et al. Effect of systemic glucocorticoids on mortality or mechanical ventilation in patients with COVID-19. J Hosp Med 2020;15(8):489-493. https://www.journalofhospitalmedicine.com/jhospmed/article/225402/hospital-medicine/effect-systemic-glucocorticoidsmortalityor-mechanical
  4. Wang Y, Jiang W, He Q, et al. A retrospective cohort study of methylprednisolone therapy in severe patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2020;5(1):57. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32341331
  5. Wu C, Chen X, Cai Y, et al. Risk factors associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome and death in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA Intern Med. 2020. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32167524
  6. Corral L, Bahamonde A, Arnaiz delas Revillas F, et al. GLUCOCOVID: A controlled trial of methylprednisolone in adults hospitalized with COVID-19 pneumonia. medRxiv. 2020. https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.06.17.20133579v1
  7. Fadel R, Morrison AR, Vahia A, et al. Early short course corticosteroids in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. Clin Infect Dis. 2020. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32427279
  8. Fernandez Cruz A, Ruiz-Antoran B, Munoz Gomez A, et al. Impact of glucocorticoid treatment in SARS-CoV-2 infection mortality: a retrospective controlled cohort study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2020. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32571831
  9. Yang Z, Liu J, Zhou Y, Zhao X, Zhao Q, Liu J. The effect of corticosteroid treatment on patients with coronavirus infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect. 2020;81(1):e13-e20. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32283144

 10. Lu X, Chen T, Wang Y, Wang J, Yan F. Adjuvant corticosteroid therapy for critically ill patients with COVID-19. Crit Care. 2020;24(1):241. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32430057

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

 

When should I consider systemic corticosteroids in my patient with Covid-19?

My patient recently underwent total knee arthroplasty (TKA) and is now found to have a Baker’s cyst. Is Baker’s cyst a postoperative complication of TKA?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Not likely! There is no evidence that TKA causes Baker’s cyst (also known as popliteal cyst). Instead, the finding of Baker’s cyst following TKA may be best explained by its well-known association with osteoarthritis, one of the main indications for TKA.1,6,7

In a study of 2025 patients who underwent primary TKA, 0.6% were diagnosed with Baker’s cysts within 6 weeks to 2 years postoperatively (75% symptomatic), but whether the cysts were present prior to TKA was unclear. There was no reported association between surgical technique or perioperative course and Baker’s cyst diagnosis.9

Actually, there might be a correlation between TKA and Baker’s cyst resolution.2,3 Among patients with known cysts preoperatively, 15% and 67% of patients may experience resolution of the cyst at 1 year and 4-6 years following surgery, respectively. 2,3

A Baker’s cyst is a fluid-filled pocket in the posterior aspect of the knee, typically seen in adults with degenerative changes in the patellofemoral joint, as may occur with meniscal tears and arthritis. When symptomatic, it can be treated non-operatively with ultrasound-guided aspiration and corticosteroid injection or operatively with surgical excision or attempted repair of the underlying defect. 4,8

 

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that the ‘crescent sign’ (bruising below the medial malleolus associated with fluid from ruptured cyst moving inferiorly toward the ankle) was first described in 1976 and may help distinguish calf pain due to Baker’s cyst from that of deep venous thrombophlebitis? 5

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 Contributed by Anamika Veeramani, Medical Student, Harvard Medical School

 

References

  1. Guermazi A., Hayashi D., Roemer F, et al. Cyst-like lesions of the knee joint and their relation to incident knee pain and development of radiographic osteoarthritis: The MOST study. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage 2010; 18:1386-1392. doi:10.1016/j.joca.2010.08.015. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20816978/
  2. Hommel H., Becker R., Fennema P., et al. (2020). The fate of Baker’s cysts at mid-term follow-up after total knee arthroplasty. The Bone & Joint Journal, 2020;102-B(1):132-136. doi:10.1302/0301-620x.102b1.bjj-2019-0273.r2. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31888367/
  3. Hommel, H., Perka, C., Kopf, S. The fate of Baker’s cyst after total knee arthroplasty. The Bone & Joint Journal 2016;98-B(9):1185-1188. doi:10.1302/0301-620x.98b9.37748. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27587518/
  4. Leib AD, Roshan A, Foris LA, et al. Baker’s Cyst. [Updated 2020 Mar 16]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2020 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430774/
  5. Mizumoto, J. The crescent sign of ruptured baker’s cyst. Journal of General Family Medicine, 2019;20(5): 215-216. doi: 10.1002/jgf2.261. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6732489/
  6. Rupp, S., Seil, R., Jochum, P., & Kohn, D. Popliteal Cysts in Adults. The American Journal of Sports Medicine 2002; 30(1): 112-115. doi:10.1177/03635465020300010401. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11799006/
  7. Sansone, V., Ponti, A. D., Paluello, G. M., & Maschio, A. D. Popliteal cysts and associated disorders of the knee. International Orthopaedics 1995;19(5): 275-279. doi:10.1007/bf00181107. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8567131/
  8. Smith, M., Lesniak, B., Baraga, M., Kaplan, L., Jose, J. Treatment of Popliteal (Baker) Cysts with Ultrasound-Guided Aspiration, Fenestration and Injection: Long-term Follow-up. Sports Health 2015; 7(5): 409-414. doi: 10.1177/1941738115585520. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4547114/
  9. Tofte, J. N., Holte, A. J., & Noiseaux, N. Popliteal (Baker’s) Cysts in the Setting of Primary Knee Arthroplasty. The Iowa Orthopedic Journal 2017;37:177-180. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28852354/

 

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

My patient recently underwent total knee arthroplasty (TKA) and is now found to have a Baker’s cyst. Is Baker’s cyst a postoperative complication of TKA?

When should I consider steroids in my patient with alcoholic hepatitis?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

The short answer is not very often! In the treatment of alcoholic hepatitis (AH), steroids are reserved for a narrow group of patients only, with a 2018 meta-analysis finding a reduction in short-term mortality (average 36%) at 28 days but not at 6 months.1

The most studied scoring system to help clinicians decide whether a patient should get steroids is the Maddrey’s Discriminant Function (MDF), which is based on the prothrombin and total bilirubin. A score of ≥32 indicates severe disease and potential response to steroids, while a score <32 indicates mild to moderate disease, for which the risk of steroids (e.g. infection, worsening ulcer disease/bleeding, and glucose intolerance) may outweigh any potential benefit.

However, even with a score ≥32, the likelihood of patient adherence to 28 days of steroid therapy, risk of infection and other steroid-related complications should be carefully considered in individual patients. It’s also important to note that a 2008 meta-analysis showed that patients with a very high MDF score of >54 actually had higher mortality rates with steroid therapy, possibly related to the lack of response in very advanced disease as well as high infection risk.2

Many clinicians also use the Lille’s score to help determine whether a patient is a responder after 7 days of initial therapy. A score >0.45 (calculated based on bilirubin levels at day 0 and 7 and other initial labs and age) indicates poor response and that steroids may be stopped due to its risks.3

Based on the result of a small retrospective study, Glasgow Alcoholic Hepatitis (GAH) score has also been suggested as a means of further defining patients with a MDF ≥32 who may potentially benefit from steroids (ie, score ≥9).4

Bonus pearl: Did you know that pentoxifylline, a tumor necrosis factor (TNF), has generally not been found to be effective in the treatment of AH?5,6

Contributed by Tom Wang, MD, Mass General Hospital, Boston, MA.

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References

  1. Louvet A, et al. “Corticosteroids reduce risk of death within 28 days for patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis, compared with pentoxifylline or Placebo—a meta-analysis of individual data from controlled trials.” Gastroenterology 2018; 155: 458-468. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016508518344950
  2. Rambaldi A, et al. “Systematic review: glucocorticosteroids for alcoholic hepatitis–a Cochrane Hepato‐Biliary Group systematic review with meta‐analyses and trial sequential analyses of randomized clinical trials.” Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics 2008; 27: 1167-1178. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2036.2008.03685.x
  3. Louvet A, et al. “The Lille model: a new tool for therapeutic strategy in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis treated with steroids.” Hepatology 2007; 45: 1348-1354. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17518367
  4. Forrest EH, et al. “Analysis of factors predictive of mortality in alcoholic hepatitis and derivation and validation of the Glasgow alcoholic hepatitis score.” Gut 2005; 54: 1174-1179. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1774903/
  5. Thursz MR, et al. “Prednisolone or pentoxifylline for alcoholic hepatitis.” N Engl J Med 2015; 372: 1619-1628. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1412278
  6. Parker R. “Systematic review: pentoxifylline for the treatment of severe alcoholic hepatitis.” Alimentary Pharm Therapeutics 2018; 37: 845-854. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/apt.12279

 

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

When should I consider steroids in my patient with alcoholic hepatitis?

What existing drugs are currently being evaluated or repurposed for treatment of Coronavirus (Covid-19) infection?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

There are currently no drugs specifically approved for treatment of Covid-19 infections. However, there are legions of therapies that are being considered, tried, and/or evaluated in clinical trials. Many experts believe a combination of drugs may be necessary for optimal therapy. Here is my select list of potentially promising drugs from gleaning the literature and online resources to date.1-16

  • Remdisivir: A broad spectrum investigational nucleoside analogue, originally developed to treat a variety of viruses, including Ebola, SARS and MERS. Active in vitro against Covid-19. Favorable results have been reported in some cases, including the first reported patient in the U.S.
  • Chloroquine: An old drug used for its antimalarial activity as well as for its immune modulation and anti-inflammatory properties. Has also been found to be active in mice against a variety of viruses, including certain enteroviruses, Zika virus, influenza A H5N1.  Active in vitro against Covid-19, though hydroxychloroquine may be more effective. Evidence for its efficacy in treating acute viral infections in humans is currently lacking.
  • Lopinavir/ritonavir: Protease inhibitor combo used in HIV infection with possibly some benefit in the treatment of SARS. Recent study showed no significant efficacy in severe Covid-19 disease. 
  • Interferon-alpha: An antiviral cytokine used against hepatitis B and C viruses. May be more effective for prophylaxis than post-exposure, based on experimental animal studies involving SARS.
  • Ribavirin: Another nucleoside analogue approved for hepatitis C (in combination with other drugs) and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections but also evaluated in SARS and MERS. Has been reported to be active in vitro against Covid-19.
  • Sofosbuvir: Inhibits RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Approved for treatment of hepatitis C, but also with in vitro activity against Covid-19.
  • Tocilizumab: Anti-interleukin-6 monoclonal antibody used in rheumatoid and giant cell arthritis. Theoretically, may mitigate cytokine storm observed in some patients during the later stages of Covid-19 disease.

Of course, there are many more drugs some of which would not be expected to be effective against Covid-19, based on what we so far know this virus. These include darunavir/cobicistat, oseltamivir, immunoglobulins, arbidol (an antiviral used in Russia and China vs influenza), angiotensin receptor blockers, stem cell therapy, convalescent plasma, and traditional Chinese medicine.

Remember corticosteroids are currently not recommended in the absence of other indications for their use (see related PEARL).

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References

  1. US National Library of Medicine. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?cond=2019nCoV&term=&cntry=&state=&city=&dist
  2. Li Guangdi, De Clercq E. Therapeutic options for the 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV). Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 2020; Feb 19, 2010. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41573-020-00016-0
  3. Harrison C. Coronavirus puts drug repurposing on the fast track. Nature Biotechnology 020, Feb 27. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41587-020-00003-1
  4. Velavan TP, Meyer CG. The COVID-19 epidemic. Tropical Medicine and International Health 2020;25:278-280. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/tmi.13383
  5. Elfiky AA. Anti-HCV, nucleotide inhibitors, repurposing against COVID-19. Life Sciences 2020;248. 11747. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0024320520302253
  6. Wang Y, Wang Y, Chen Y, et al. Unique epidemiological and clinical features of the emerging 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) implicate special control measures. J Med Virol 2020;March 5. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32134116
  7. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2029 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020;395:497-506. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31986264
  8. Paules CI, Marston HD, Fauci AS. Coronavirus infections—More than just the common cold. JAMA 2020;323:707-78. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2759815
  9. Touret F, de Lamballerie X. Of chloroquine and COVID-19. Antiviral Research 2020;177. 104762. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166354220301145
  10. Gurwitz D. Angiotensin receptor blockers as tentavie SARS-CoV-2 therapeutics. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32129518/
  11. Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, et al. Remdesivir and chlorquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Research 2020;30:269-71. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41422-020-0282-0
  12. Roques P, Thiberville SD, Dupuis-Maguirara L, et al. Paradoxical effect of chloroquine treatment in enhancing Chikungunya virus infection. Viruses 2018;10, 268. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29772762
  13. Young BE, Ong SWX, Kalimuddin S, et al. Epidemiologic features and clinical course of patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 in Singapore. JAMA 2020;March 3. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2762688
  14. Holshue ML, DeBolt C, Lindquist S, et al. First case of 2019 novel coronavirus in the United States. N Engl J Med 2020; March 5. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2001191
  15. Yao X, Ye F, Zhang M, et al. In vitro antiviral activity and projection of optimized dosing design of hydroxychloroquine for the treatment of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Clin Infect Dis 2020. March 9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=32150618
  16. Cao B, Wang Y, Wen D, et al. A trial of lopinavir-ritonavir in adults hospitalized with severe Covid-19. N Engl M Med 2020, March18. DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa2001282. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2001282

 

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

What existing drugs are currently being evaluated or repurposed for treatment of Coronavirus (Covid-19) infection?

Key clinical pearls in the medical management of hospitalized patients with coronavirus (Covid-19) infection

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 1 Comment

First, a shout-out to dedicated healthcare workers everywhere who have selflessly given of themselves to care for the sick during this pandemic. Thank you! Together, I know we will get through it!

Although our understanding of Covid-19 infection is far from complete, in the spirit of clarity and brevity of my posts on Pearls4Peers, here are some key points I have gleaned from review of existing literature and the CDC that may be useful as we care for our hospitalized patients with suspected or confirmed Covid-19 infection.

  • Isolation precautions.1 Per CDC, follow a combination of airborne (particularly when aerosol generating procedures is anticipated, including nebulizer treatment) and contact precaution protocols. Routinely use masks or respirators, such as N-95s (subject to local availability and policy) and eye protection. Don gowns (subject to local availability and policy) and gloves and adhere to strict hand hygiene practices.

 

  • Diagnostic tests1-9
    • Laboratory tests. Routine admission labs include CBC, electrolytes, coagulation panels and liver and renal tests. Other frequently reported labs include LDH, C-reactive protein (CRP) and procalcitonin. Testing for high sensitivity troponin I has also been performed in some patients, presumably due to concern over ischemic cardiac injury or myocarditis.2 Check other labs as clinically indicated.
    • Chest radiograph/CT chest. One or both have been obtained in virtually all reported cases with CT having higher sensitivity for detection of lung abnormalities.
    • EKG. Frequency of checking EKGs not reported in many published reports thought 1 study reported “acute cardiac injury” in some patients, based in part on EKG findings.4 Suspect we will be checking EKGs in many patients, particularly those who are older or are at risk of heart disease.
    • Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS). This relatively new technology appears promising in Covid-19 infections, including in rapid assessment of the severity of pneumonia or ARDS at presentation and tracking the evolution of the disease. 9 Don’t forget to disinfect the probe between uses!

 

  • Treatment 1-8
    • Specific therapies are not currently available for treatment of Covid-19 infections, but studies are underway.
    • Supportive care includes IV fluids, 02 supplementation and nutrition, as needed. Plenty of emotional support for patients and their families will likely be needed during these times.
    • Antibiotics have been used in the majority of reported cases, either on admission or during hospitalization when superimposed bacterial pneumonia or sepsis could not be excluded.
      • Prescribe antibiotics against common community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) pathogens, including those associated with post-viral/influenza pneumonia such as Streptococcus pneumoniae (eg, ceftriaxone), and Staphylococcus aureus (eg, vancomycin or linezolid if MRSA is suspected) when concurrent CAP is suspected.
      • Prescribe antibiotics against common hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP) (eg, vancomycin plus cefepime) when HAP is suspected.
    • Corticosteroids should be avoided because of the potential for prolonging viral replication, unless indicated for other reasons such as COPD exacerbation or septic shock. 1
    • Monitor for deterioration in clinical status even when your hospitalized patient has relatively minor symptoms. This is because progression to lower respiratory tract disease due to Covid-19 often develops during the 2nd week of illness (average 9 days).
    • ICU transfer may be necessary in up to 30% of hospitalized patients due to complications such as ARDS, secondary infections, and multi-organ failure.

 

Again, thank you for caring for the sick and be safe! Feel free to leave comments or questions.

 

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References

  1. CDC. Interim clinical guidance for management of patients with confirmed coronavirus disease (COVID-19). https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/clinical-guidance-management-patients.html
  2. Ruan Q, Yang K, Wang W, Jiang L, et al. Clinical predictors of mortality due to COVID-19 based on analysis of data of 150 patients with Wuhan, China. Intensive Care Med 2020. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00134-020-05991-x
  3. Holshue ML, BeBohlt C, Lindquist S, et al. First case of 2019 novel coronavirus in the United States. N Engl J Med 2020;382:929-36. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2001191
  4. Huang C, Wang Y, Li Xingwang, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020;395:497-506. https://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lancet/PIIS0140-6736(20)30183-5.pdf
  5. Young BE, Ong SWX, Kalimuddin S, et al. Epideomiologic features and clinical course of patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 Singapore. JAMA, March 3, 2020. Doi.10.1001/jama.2020.3204 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32125362
  6. Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, et al. Epidemiological and clinical chacteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet 2020;395:507-13. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30211-7/fulltext
  7. Guan W, Ni Z, Hu Y, et al. Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. N Engl Med 2020, Feb 28, 2020. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2002032
  8. Zhang J, Zhou L, Yang Y, et al. Therapeutic and triage strategies for 2019 novel coronavirus disease in fever clinics. Lancet 2020;8: e11-e12. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanres/article/PIIS2213-2600(20)30071-0/fulltext 9.
  9. Peng QY, Wang XT, Zhang LN, et al. Findings of lung ultrasonography of novel corona virus pneumonia during the 2019-2020 epidemic. Intensive Care Med 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-020-05996-
Key clinical pearls in the medical management of hospitalized patients with coronavirus (Covid-19) infection

My patient with rheumatoid arthritis might have been exposed to tuberculosis. Does immunosuppressive therapy affect the results of interferon gamma release assay (IGRA) testing for latent tuberculosis?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

The weight of the evidence to date suggests that immunosuppressive therapy, including steroids, other oral immunosuppressants and anti-tumor-necrosis factor (TNF) agents, may negatively impact IGRA results.1

In some ways the finding of false-negative IGRA in the setting of immunosuppression is intuitive since many immunosuppressive agents are potent inhibitors of T cells and interferon-gamma response. 1,2 Despite this, the initial reports have been somewhat conflicting which makes a 2016 meta-analysis of the effect of immunosuppressive therapy on IGRA results in patient with autoimmune diseases (eg, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, inflammatory bowel disease) particularly timely. 1

This meta-analysis found a significantly lower positive IGRA results among patients on immunosuppressive therapy ( O.R. 0.66, 95% C.I. 0.53-0.83). Breakdown by IGRA test showed a significant association between QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-Tube and lower positive results and a trend toward the same with T-SPOT though the latter did not reach statistical significance with fewer evaluable studies (O.R. 0.81, 95% C.I 0.6-1.1).   Breakdown by type of immunosuppressant showed significantly negative impact of corticossteroids, other oral immunosuppressants, and anti-TNF agents for all. Some studies have reported daily steroid doses as low as 7.5 mg-10 mg may adversely impact T-cell responsiveness in IGRA. 3,4

So, whenever possible, testing for latent TB should be performed before immunosuppressants are initiated.

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that an estimated one-third of the world’s population may have latent TB?

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References

  1. Wong SH, Gao Q, Tsoi KKF, et al. Effect of immunosuppressive therapy on interferon gamma release assay for latent tuberculosis screening in patients with autoimmune diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Thorax 2016;71:64-72. https://thorax.bmj.com/content/thoraxjnl/71/1/64.full.pdf
  2. Sester U, Wilkens H, van Bentum K, et al. Impaired detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis immunity in patents using high levels of immunosuppressive drugs. Eur Respir J 2009;34:702-10. https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/34/3/702
  3. Kleinert S, Kurzai O, Elias J, et al. Comparison of two interferon-gamma release assays and tuberculin skin test for detecting latent tuberculosis in patients with immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. Ann Rheum Dis 2010;69:782-4. https://ard.bmj.com/content/69/4/782
  4. Ponce de Leon D, Acevedo-Vasquez E, Alvizuri S, et al. Comparison of an interferon-gamma assay with tuberculin skin testing for detection of tuberculosis (TB) infection in patients with rheumatoid arthritis in a TB-endemic population. J Rheumatol 2008;35:776-81. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18398944
My patient with rheumatoid arthritis might have been exposed to tuberculosis. Does immunosuppressive therapy affect the results of interferon gamma release assay (IGRA) testing for latent tuberculosis?

When should I suspect invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in my patient with COPD exacerbation?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , Leave a comment

Think of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) in your patient when she or he has a COPD exacerbation that appears refractory to broad-spectrum antibiotics and high doses of steroids. Heighten your suspicion even more in patients with severe-steroid dependent COPD, presence of a new pulmonary infiltrate or isolation of Aspergillus spp from respiratory cultures. 1

It’s worth remembering that although dyspnea and bronchospasm are found in most COPD patients with IPA, in contrast to haematological patients, fever, chest pain and hemoptysis are usually absent in this patient population.1

Diagnosis of IPA in this patient population is challenging for several reasons including: 1. A definitive or “proven” diagnosis requires histopathologic evidence of Aspergillus invasion of lung tissue which is not possible without subjecting an already fragile patient to invasive procedures (eg, lung aspiration or biopsy); 2. In contrast to IPA in highly susceptible immunocompromised patients with cancer and recipients of hematopoietic stem cell transplants, standardized definition of IPA in patients with COPD is lacking; 1,3 and 3. Frequent colonization of the respiratory tract of COPD patients with Aspergillus spp (16.3 per 1000 COPD admission in 1 study) 4,5, makes it difficult to diagnose IPA based on cultures alone.

Aside from respiratory cultures, another non-invasive test, serum galactomannan (GM, a polysaccharide antigen that exists primarily in the cell walls of Aspergillus spp and released into the blood during its growth phase 6) may have some utility in suggesting IPA in COPD patients, albeit with a mediocre sensitivity (~30-60%) but respectable specificity (>80 %). In contrast, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid GM may have better sensitivity  (~75%-90%) with similar specificity as that of serum GM in the diagnosis of IPA in these patients 7-8

Bonus pearl: Did you know that the incidence of IPA appears to be increasing in COPD patients requiring ICU admission, with reported mortality rates of 67% to 100%? 7

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References

  1. Bulpa P, Dive A, Sibille Y. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Res J 2007;30:782-800. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17906086
  2. Bulpa P, Bihin B, Dimopoulos G, et al. Which algorithm diagnoses invasive pulmonary aspergillosis best in ICU patietns with COPD? Eur Resir J 2017;50:1700532 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28954783
  3. Barberan J, Garcia-Perez FJ, Villena V, et al. Development of aspergillosis in a cohort of non-neutropenic, non-transplant patients colonized by Aspergillus spp. BMC Infect Dis 2017;17:34. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12879-016-2143-5
  4. Guinea J, Torres-Narbona M, Gijon P, et al. Pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: incidence, risk factors, and outcome. Clin Microbiol Infect 2010; 16:870-77. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1198743X14617432
  5. Blot Stijn I, Taccone FS, Van den Abeele A-M, et al. A clinical algorithm to diagnose invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in critically ill patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 202;186:56-64. https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.201111-1978OC
  6. Pfeiffer CD, Fine JP, Safdar N. Diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis using a galactomannan assay: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2006;42:1417-27. https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/42/10/1417/278148
  7. He H, Ding L, Sun B, et al. Role of galactomannan determinations in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid samples from critically ill patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease for the diagnosis of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis: a prospective study. Critical Care 2012;16:R138. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5066034/
  8. Zhou W, Li H, Zhang Y, et al. Diagnostic value of galactomannan antigen test in serum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid samples from patients with nonneutropenic invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. J Clin Microbiol 2017;55:2153-61. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28446576
When should I suspect invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in my patient with COPD exacerbation?

Should my patient with COPD and recurrent exacerbations undergo evaluation for antibody deficiency?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Although there are no consensus guidelines on when to evaluate patients with COPD for antibody deficiency, we should at least consider this possibility in patients with recurrent exacerbations despite maximal inhaled therapy (long-acting beta-2 agonist-LABA, long-acting muscarinic antagonist-LAMA and inhaled corticosteroids).1

Couple of retrospective studies of common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) in patients with COPD have reported a prevalence ranging from 2.4% to 4.5%. 1 In another study involving 42 patients thought to have had 2 or more moderate to severe COPD exacerbations per year—often despite maximal inhaled therapy— 29 were diagnosed  with antibody deficiency syndrome, including 20 with specific antibody deficiency (SAD), 8 with CVID and 1 with selective IgA deficiency.2  Although systemic corticosteroids may lower IgG and IgA levels, the majority of the patients in this study were not taking any corticosteroids at the time of their evaluation.

In another study involving patients undergoing lung transplantation, pre-transplant mild hypogammaglobulinemia was more prevalent among those with COPD (15%) compared to other lung conditions (eg, cystic fibrosis), independent of corticosteroid use.3  A favorable impact of immunoglobulin therapy or chronic suppressive antibiotics on reducing recurrent episodes of COPD exacerbation in patients with antibody deficiency has also been reported, supporting the clinical relevance of hypogammaglobulinemia in these patients. 2,4 

Remember that even normal quantitative serum immunoglobulin levels (IgG, IgA, and IgM) do not necessarily rule out antibody deficiency. Measurement of IgG subclasses, as well as more specific antibodies, such as those against pneumococcal polysaccharides may be required for further evaluation.

See a related pearl at https://pearls4peers.com/2015/07/12/my-65-year-old-patient-has-had-several-bouts-of-bacterial-pneumonia-in-the-past-2-years-her-total-serum-immunoglobulins-are-within-normal-range-could-she-still-be-immunodeficient/.

Contributed in part by Sydney Montesi, MD, Mass General Hospital, Boston, MA.

References

  1. Berger M, Geng B, Cameron DW, et al. Primary immune deficiency diseases as unrecognized causes of chronic respiratory disease. Resp Med 2017;132:181-188. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0954611117303554
  2. McCullagh BN, Comelias AP, Ballas ZK, et al. Antibody deficiency in patients with frequent exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). PLoS ONE 2017; 12: e0172437. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0172437
  3. Yip NH, Lederer DJ, Kawut SM, et al. Immunoglobulin G levels before and after lung transplantation 2006;173:917-21.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2662910/
  4. Cowan J, Gaudet L, Mulpuru S, et al. A retrospective longitudinal within-subject risk interval analysis of immunoglobulin treatment for recurrent acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. PLoS ONE 2015;10:e0142205. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0142205

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Should my patient with COPD and recurrent exacerbations undergo evaluation for antibody deficiency?

When should I consider prophylaxis for Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in my patient on prednisone?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , Leave a comment

It is generally recommended that patients on ≥20 mg of daily prednisone (or its equivalent) for ≥1 month be considered for PCP prophylaxis. 1

Couple of studies in 1990s helped define the dose and duration of corticosteroids (CS) that should prompt PCP prophylaxis. A Mayo Clinic study of patients without AIDS found that a median daily CS dose of 30 mg of prednisone or equivalent—with 25% of patients receiving as little as 16 mg of prednisone daily— was associated with PCP.2  The median duration of CS therapy before PCP was 12 weeks. A similar study found a mean CS dose of 33 mg of prednisone or equivalent with mean duration of 7 months (range 1-154 months) among patients with PCP without AIDS. 3

A 2018 retrospective study4  of patients with rheumatic diseases receiving prolonged high-dose CS therapy (≥30 mg prednisone for ≥4 weeks) found that PCP prophylaxis with trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/STX) resulted in 93% reduction in the incidence of PCP with an overall number needed to treat (NNT) of 52. It was suggested that PCP prophylaxis could be discontinued in patients receiving < 15 mg of prednisone daily.

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that TMP/STX may be given either as double-strength 3x/week or single-strength daily? 5,6

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References

1. Limper AH, Knox KS, Sarosi SA, et al. An official American Thoracic Society statement: Treatment of fungal infections in adult pulmonary and critical care patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;183:96-128. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21193785

2. Yale SH, Limper AH. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients without acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: associated illness and prior corticosteroid therapy. Mayo Clin Proc 1996;71:5-13. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0025619611649148

3. Arend SM, Kroon FP, van’t Wout JW. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients without AIDS, 1980 through 1993: An analysis of 78 cases. Arch Intern Med 1995;155:2436-2441. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7503602

4. Park JW, Curtis JR, Moon J, et al. Prophylactic effect of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for Pneumocystis pneumonia in patients with rheumatic diseases exposed to prolonged high-dose glucocorticoieds. Ann Rheum Dis 2018;77:664-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29092853

5. Anevlavis S, Kaltsas K, Bouros D. Prophylaxis for pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in non-HIV infected patients. PNEUMON 2012;25, October-December.http://www.pneumon.org/assets/files/789/file483_273.pdf

6. Stern A, Green H, Paul M, Leibovici L. Prophylaxis for pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in non-HIV immunocompromised patients (Review). Cochrane data of Systematic Reviews 2014, issue 10. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD005590.pub3. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25269391

 

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Mercy Hospital-St. Louis or its affiliate healthcare centers, Mass General Hospital, Harvard Medical School or its affiliated institutions. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

 

 

When should I consider prophylaxis for Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in my patient on prednisone?