Gastrointestinal disease

What is the clinical significance of “white bile” from my patient’s gallbladder drain?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , Leave a comment

“White bile” (WB) (Figure) is a clear sero-mucous secretion of gallbladder that is largely devoid of bilirubin and bile salts. It arises from glycoproteins that are normally secreted by the mucosal glands of the gallbladder infundibulum and neck, and is thought to shield the gallbladder wall from the lytic action of bile.

WB is observed in “hydrops” of gallbladder and is caused by absorption of bile by the gallbladder wall in the setting of persistent cystic duct obstruction1. It is commonly held that in persistent cystic duct obstruction, bile in the gallbladder is eventually absorbed into the lymphatics and blood vessels but that the gallbladder epithelium continues to produce clear sero-mucous secretions. In this setting, dilatation, perforation, and atrophy of the gallbladder lumen may also occur1-3.  Early cholecystostomy tube placement or cholecystectomy is often indicated1,3.

Common etiologies of persistent cystic duct blockage in adults include, stone impaction, cystic duct stenosis, tumors/polyps, and parasites (eg, ascariasis).

Figure: “White bile” drainage from a cholecystostomy drain of a patient with cholecystitis and persistent cystic duct blockage due to stones. The drainage was completely clear with mucous characteristics. 

whitebile

Reference:

  1. Schwartz, Seymour I, Brunicardi, F. Charles., eds. Schwartz’s Principles Of Surgery. New York : McGraw-Hill Medical, 2011.
  2. Ahmed A, Cheung RC, Keeffe EB. Management of gallstones and their complications. Am Fam Physician 2000; 61, 1673-1680.
  3. Lawrence S. Friedman, Mark Feldman. Sleisenger and Fordtran’s Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease 10th Edition. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier, 2015.

Contributed by Alireza Sameie, Medical Student, Harvard Medical School

What is the clinical significance of “white bile” from my patient’s gallbladder drain?

What complications should I look for in my hospitalized patient suspected of having check-point inhibitor toxicity?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , Leave a comment

Targeting the host immune system via monoclonal antibodies known as checkpoint inhibitors (CPIs) is an exciting new strategy aimed at interfering with the ability of cancer cells to evade the patient’s existing antitumor immune response. CPIs have been shown to be effective in a wide variety of cancers and are likely to be the next major breakthrough for solid tumors1-3. Unfortunately, serious—at times fatal— immune-related Adverse Events (irAEs) have also been associated with their use4,5.

IrAEs occur in the majority of patients treated with nivolumab (a programmed death 1 [PD-1] CPI] or ipilimumab (a cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 [CTLA-4] CPI)1. The severity of irAEs may range from mild (grade 1) to very severe (grade 4). Grading system categories discussed in more detail at link below:

https://www.eortc.be/services/doc/ctc/CTCAE_4.03_2010-06-14_QuickReference_5x7.pdf.

Although fatigue, diarrhea, pruritis, rash and nausea are not uncommon, more severe grade (3 or 4) irAEs may also occur (Figure). The most frequent grade 3 or 4 irAEs are diarrhea and colitis; elevated ALT or AST are also reported, particularly when CPIs are used in combination. Hypophysitis, thyroiditis, adrenal insufficiency, pneumonitis, enteritis sparing the colon with small bowel obstruction, and hematologic and neurologic toxicities may also occur.

Generally, skin and GI toxicities appear first, within a few weeks of therapy, followed by hepatitis and endocrinopathies which usually present between weeks 12 and 245. High suspicion and early diagnosis is key to successful management of irAEs.

Figure. Selected irAEs associated with nivolumab and ipilimumab (adapted from reference 1).

chceky2

References

  1. Larkin J, Chiarion-Sileni V, Gonzalez R, et al. Combined nivolumab and ipilimumab or monotherapy in untreated melanoma. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:23-34.
  2. Borghaei H, Paz-Ares L, Horn L, et al. Nivolumab versus docetaxel in advanced nonsquamous non-small-cell lung cancer. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:1627-1639.
  3. Brahmer J, Reckamp KL, Baas P, et al. Nivolumab versus docetaxel in advanced squamous-cell non-small-cell lung cancer. N Engl J Med 2015; 373:123-135.
  4. Weber JS, Yang JC, Atkins MB, Disis ML. Toxicities of immunotherapy for the practitioner. J Clin Oncol 2015;33:2092-2099.
  5. Weber JS. Practical management of immune-related adverse events from immune checkpoint protein antibodies for the oncologist. Am Soc Clin Oncol Educ Book. 2012:174-177.

Contributed by Kerry Reynolds, MD, Mass General Hospital, Boston.

 

 

 

 

What complications should I look for in my hospitalized patient suspected of having check-point inhibitor toxicity?

My patient with recent Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) needs a gastric acid-suppressant. Are histamine2-receptor antagonists (H2RAs) associated with CDI?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , Leave a comment

Although proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) have received much attention for their link with CDI, H2RAs have also been associated with CDI.  In a study of CDI among hospitalized patients, H2RA was associated with CDI (O.R. 1.53, 95% CI, 1.12-2.10); for daily PPI use the O.R. was 1.74 (95% CI, 1.39-2.18)1.  

A meta-analysis in 2013 reported an overall O.R. of 1.44 (95% CI 1.22-1.7) for CDI in patients treated with H2RAs2.  The estimated number needed to harm with H2RAs at 14 days after hospital admission was 58 for patients on antibiotics vs 425 for those not receiving antibiotics2.

Potential mechanism for H2RA-associated CDI is unclear, but survival of acid-sensitive vegetative forms of C. difficile in the stomach and their enhanced growth in the presence of bile salts related to gastro-esophageal reflux disease have been postulated2.

In brief, gastric acid suppression with H2RAs may increase the risk of CDI in hospitalized patients. 

 

References

  1. Howell MD Novack V, Grgurich P, et al. Iatrogenic gastric acid suppression and the risk of nosocomial Clostridium difficile infection. Arch Intern Med 2010; 170:784-790.
  2. Tleyjeh IM, Bin Abdulhak AA, Riaz M, et al. The association between histamine 2 receptor antagonist use and Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 2013; 8:e56498.
My patient with recent Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) needs a gastric acid-suppressant. Are histamine2-receptor antagonists (H2RAs) associated with CDI?

Is there really an association between proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) and Clostridium difficile infection (CDI)?

FA Manian MD, MPH, Leave a comment

Most studies report such an association but its strength has varied among studies.

Many earlier reviews and meta-analyses had significant limitations, including use of unadjusted data from observational studies, and not assessing heterogeneity (variation in study outcomes) and the effect of publication bias1.  A more recent meta-analysis of over 40 citations found an association between PPI use and CDI (O.R. 1.51, 95% CI, 1.26–1.83) adjusting for publication bias, but the association was weakened by the presence of significant heterogeneity in the published studies1. For the general population, the strength of the association was relatively weak (number needed to harm [NNTH] 3925 at 1 year), while for hospitalized patients it was much stronger (NNTH 50 at 2 weeks).

It is unclear how PPIs might increase risk of CDI as C. difficile spores are not killed by gastric acid2. They may interfere with the killing of the vegetative form of C. difficile by inhibiting gastric acid secretion or may delay gastric emptying with associated high intragastric bile salts which may trigger spore germination in the stomach; neither hypothesis has been proven, however2.  Although a causal relationship has not been proven, judicious use of PPIs in high risk patients for CDI is advised.

 

References

  • Tleyjeh IM, Bin Abdulhak AA, Riaz M, et al. (2012) Association between proton pump inhibitor therapy and Clostridium difficile infection: A contemporary systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 2012; 7: e50836.
  • Nerandzic MM, Pultz MJ, Donskey CJ. Examination of potential mechanisms to explain the association between proton pump Inhibitors and Clostridium difficile infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009;53(10): 4133–4137.
Is there really an association between proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) and Clostridium difficile infection (CDI)?

My elderly patient with aortic stenosis has iron deficiency in the setting of Heyde’s syndrome. Can surgical or transcatheter aortic valve replacement (SAVR, TAVR) reduce her risk of future gastrointestinal bleeding?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Yes! Heyde’s syndrome, characterized by aortic stenosis and GI angiodysplasia1, appears to respond to SAVR or TAVR by reducing future risk of GI bleed.

Cessation of bleeding following SAVR or TAVR with gradual disappearance of angiodysplasia has been reported, in some cases despite long-term anticoagulant therapy. 2,3 In fact, GI bleed may cease in 95% of cases following AVR vs 5% in cases controlled with laparotomy with or without bowel resection.  Further supporting the potential role of valve replacement is the observation that in patients who have undergone SAVR, aortic valve restenosis usually leads to the recurrence of GI bleeding which again resolves after redo surgery.

The pathophysiology of Heyde’s syndrome involves not only increased number of angiodysplasias but higher risk of bleeding from them.  Although its exact  physiological link is unclear, hypo-oxygenation of intestinal mucosa—possibly related to cholesterol emboli with resultant vasodilatation—has been hypothesized, among many others.4   Bleeding from angiodysplasias appears related to the high shear stress across the stenotic aortic valve, leading to acquired von Willebrand’s disease (Type 2AvWF disease) and coagulopathy.4

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References

    1. Heyde EC. Gastrointestinal bleeding in aortic stenosis. N Engl J Med 1958;259:196. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200209123471122
    2. Abi-akar R, El-rassi I, Karam N et al. Treatment of Heyde’s syndrome by aortic valve replacement. Curr Cardiol Rev 2011;  7:47–49. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3131716/
    3. Pyxaras, SA, Santangelo S. Perkan A et al. Reversal of angiodysplasia-derived anemia after transcatheter aortic valve implantation. J Cardiol Cases 2012; 5: e128–e131. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S187854091100079X
    4. Kapila A, Chhabra L, Khanna A. Valvular aortic stenosis causing angiodysplasia and acquired von Willebrand’s disease: Heyde’s syndrome. BMJ Case Rep 2014 doi:10.1136/bcr-2013-201890. http://casereports.bmj.com/content/2014/bcr-2013-201890.full.pdf

 

Contributed by Biqi Zhang, Medical Student,  Harvard Medical School

 

My elderly patient with aortic stenosis has iron deficiency in the setting of Heyde’s syndrome. Can surgical or transcatheter aortic valve replacement (SAVR, TAVR) reduce her risk of future gastrointestinal bleeding?

Is oral metronidazole (Flagyl®) effective in reducing the risk of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection (CDI)?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , Leave a comment

To date only 1 study has attempted to evaluate metronidazole’s role in preventing CDI1. This work, however,  has significant shortcomings including its retrospective nature, definition of metronidazole prophylaxis as any dose for reasons other than CDI starting 1-3 days before initiation of the primary antibiotic, undefined duration, less comorbidities in the metronidazole group, and surveillance period for CDI limited to only 7 days following initiation of the primary antibiotic. For these reasons, it is difficult to interpret the results of this study whose conclusion was that metronidazole may protective against CDI2.

In fact, there are several reasons why metronidazole prophylaxis may not be effective in CDI.   First, due to its very high bioavailability, concentrations of metronidazole in formed stool are often undetectable2,3 . Consequently, “preventive” metronidazole in patients at risk of CDI but with formed stools would not be expected to achieve high enough concentrations in the colon to be effective.  In additions, metronidazole itself may be associated with CDI4 and  vancomycin-resistant enterococci5,  and has several potential drug-interactions and adverse effects6 .

References

  1. Rodriguez S, Hernandez MB, Tarchini G, et al. Risk of Clostridium difficile infection in hospitalized patients receiving metronidazole for a non-C difficile infection. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2014;12:1856-61. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24681079
  2. Dupont HL. Chemoprophylaxis of Clostridium difficile infections in high-risk hospitalized patients. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2014;12: 1862-63. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/labs/articles/24768812/
  3. Bolton RP, Culshaw MA. Faecal metronidazole concentrations during oral and intravenous therapy for antibiotic associated colitis due to Clostridium difficile. Gut 1986;27:1169-1172. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1433873/pdf/gut00370-0065.pdf
  4. Daly JJ, Chowdary KV. Pseudomembranous colitis secondary to metronidazole. Dig Dis Sci 1983;28:573-4.
  5.  Carmeli Y, Eliopoulos GM, Samore MH. Antecedent treatment with different antibiotic agents as a risk factor for vancomycin-resistant enterococcus. Emerg Infect Dis 2002;8:802-807. https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/8/8/pdfs/01-0418.pdf
  6. Salvatore M, Meyers BR. Metronidazole. In Mandel, Douglas, Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases-7th Ed. p. 419-426. 2010, Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia.

 

 

Is oral metronidazole (Flagyl®) effective in reducing the risk of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection (CDI)?

How might constipation lead to urinary retention?

FA Manian MD, MPH, Leave a comment

The association between constipation and urinary retention is well known (1,2).

Several mechanisms may explain this relationship,  including sharing of the innervations of the internal anal and urinary sphincters  via S2-S4 nerve roots, and the presence of impacted stool in the rectum leading to invaginations in the posterior wall of the bladder and urethral obstruction (1,2). 

Interestingly, in laboratory experiments involving rats, rectal distention with a balloon diminished bladder contractility (3).   So, along with many other factors, constipation should routinely be considered a potential cause of acute urinary retention.  

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References

1. Selius BA, Subedi R. Urinary retention in adults: diagnosis and initial management. Am Fam Physician 2008;77:643-650. https://www.aafp.org/afp/2008/0301/p643.html  

2. Ariza Traslavina, Del Ciampo LA, Ferraz IS. Acute urinary retention in a pre-school girl with constipation. Rev Paul Pediatr 2015;33:488-492.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4685571/

3. Miyazato M, Sugaya K, Nishijima S, et al. Rectal distention inhibits the spinal micturition reflex via glycinergic or GABAergic mechanisms in rats with spinal cord injury. Urol Int  2005;74:160-65. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15756069

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of  Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, their affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

 

How might constipation lead to urinary retention?

Are GI symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea common in patients with influenza?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , Leave a comment

Typically, GI symptoms are more prominent in children with influenza than adults but during the H1N1 epidemic in 2009 (which has subsequently become endemic), up to 26% of hospitalized adults with H1N1 infection had abdominal pain or vomiting and up to 25% had diarrhea (1). 

In fact, H1N1 virus has been isolated from stool of adult hospitalized patients (2,3) and receptors of influenza virus have been identified in human GI epithelial cells, the correlation between GI symptoms and isolation of virus from stool is poorly defined (4).

Interestingly, the mechanism involved in influenza-mediated intestinal injury may have less to do with direct invasion of the intestinal mucosa by the virus and more to do with immune mediated changes  related to alterations in the intestinal microbiota induced by influenza virus infection itself (4,5)! 

Aside from direct or indirect effects of influenza virus on the GI tract, oseltamivir and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory use may also contribute to GI symptoms (4).

 

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References

  1. Writing Committee of the WHO Consultation on Clinical Aspects of Pandemic (H1N1) 2009 influenza. Clinical aspects of pandemic 2009 influenza A (H1N1) virus infection. N Engl J Med 2010;362:1708-19. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20445182
  2. Yoo SJ, Moon SJ, Kuak E-Y, et al. Frequent detection of pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus in stools of hospitalized patients. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48:2314-2315. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20375236
  3. Minodier L, Charrel RN, Ceccaldi PE, et al. Prevalence of gastrointestinal symptoms in patients with influenza, clinical significance, and pathophysiology of human influenza viruses in faecal samples: what do we know? Virol J 2015;12:215. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4676820/
  4. Shu Y, Li CK, Gao R, et al. Avian influenza A(H5N1) viruses can directly infect and replicate in human gut tissues. J Infect Dis 2010;201:1173-7. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20210629
  5. Wang J, Li F, Wei H, et al. Respiratory influenza virus infection induces intestinal immune injury via microbiota mediated Th17 cell-dependent inflammation. J Exp Med 2014;211:2397-2410. http://europepmc.org/article/PMC/4235643
Are GI symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea common in patients with influenza?