Proton pump inhibitors;

Do proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) reduce the risk of bleeding from lower gastrointestinal tract?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

The short answer is “No”!  Although proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are effective in reducing the risk of upper gastrointestinal bleed (GIB) in high-risk patients, they do not protect against lower GIB. 1 In fact, their use has been associated with an increased risk of small bowel injury related to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and low-dose aspirin.2,3

A 2015 case-control study involving over 1,000 patients hospitalized for GIB found that although concomitant use of PPI in patients on NSAIDs, low-dose aspirin, other antiplatelet agents or anticoagulants was associated with a reduced risk of UGIB, it was not associated with reduced risk of lower GIB.  Interestingly, in this study, PPIs were associated with higher risk of lower GIB which might have been related to confounding factors and not necessarily a direct causal effect.4 Lack of an impact of PPIs on lower GIB among patients on aspirin or NSAIDS has also been supported by others. 5-7

The fact that PPIs don’t seem to reduce the risk of GIB distal to the duodenum should not be surprising given their primary mechanism of action through inhibition of acid production by gastric parietal cells. 8  What is perhaps more intriguing is how they may potentially increase the risk of small intestinal injury while still protecting the gastro-duodenum from NSAID-induced mucosal damage.

In a cool laboratory study involving rats, treatment with a PPI was associated with exacerbation of NSAID-induced intestinal ulceration and bleeding; by itself treatment with PPI was not associated with intestinal mucosa injury.9 Interestingly, in this study, a marked shifts in numbers and types of enteric bacteria with a significant reduction in jejunal Bifidobacteria spp was noted with PPI therapy. Restoration of small intestine Bifididobacteria during treatment with a PPI along with an NSAID prevented intestinal ulceration/bleeding. The investigators concluded that when used along with an NSAID, PPIs may cause small intestinal injury through alteration in the microbiome of the gut.  Fascinating!

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that the 2022 American Gastroenterological Association (AGA) clinical practice update on de-prescribing of PPIs lists several conditions for which acute/short term use of PPIs are NOT indicated, such as isolated lower GI symptomatology, acute nausea and vomiting not believed to be related to GERD/esophagitis, acute undifferentiated abdominal pain, and empiric treatment of laryngopharyngeal symptomatology? 10 

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References

  1. Lue A, Lanas A. Proton pump inhibitor treatment and lower gastrointestinal bleeding: Balancing risks and benefits. World J Gastroenterol 2016;22:10477-10481. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5192259/#:~:text=PPIs%20do%20not%20prevent%20NSAID,and%20the%20risk%20of%20LGB.
  2. Endo H, Sakai E, Taniguchi L, et al. Risk factors for small-bowel mucosal breaks in chronic low-dose aspirin users: data from a prospective multicenter capsule endoscopy registry. Gastrointes Endosc 2014;80:826-34. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24830581/
  3. Washio E, Esaki M, Maehata Y, et al. Proton pump inhibitors increase incidence of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced small bowel injury: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2016;14:809-815. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26538205/
  4. Lanas A, Carrera-Lasfuentes P, Arguedas Y, et al. Risk of upper and lower gastrointestinal bleeding in patients taking nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, antiplatelet agents, or anticoagulants. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2015;13:906-12. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25460554/
  5. Nagata N, Niikura R, Aoki T, et al. Effect of proton-pump inhibitors on the risk of lower gastrointestinal bleeding associated with NSAIDs, aspirin, clopidogrel, and warfarin. J Gastroenterol 2015;50:1079-1086. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25700638/
  6. Garcia Rodriguez LA, Lanas A, Soriano-Gabarro M, et al. Effect of proton pump inhibitors on risks of upper and lower gastrointestinal bleeding among users of low-dose aspirin: A population-based observational study. J Clin Med 2020;9:928. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/9/4/928
  7. Casado Arroyo R, Polo-Tomas M, Roncales MP, et al. Lower GI bleeding is more common than upper among patients on dual antiplatelet therapy: long-term follow-up of a cohort of a patients commonly using PPI co-therapy. Heart 2012;98:718-723. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22523056/
  8. Engevik AC, Kaji I, Goldenring JR. The physiology of the gastric parietal cell. Physiol Rev 2020;100:573-602. The Physiology of the Gastric Parietal Cell – PMC (nih.gov)
  9. Wallace JL, Syer S, Denou E, et al. Proton pump inhibitors exacerbate NSAID-induced small intestinal injury by inducing dysbiosis. Gastroenterology 2011;141:1314-22. https://www.gastrojournal.org/action/showPdf?pii=S0016-5085%2811%2900926-7
  10. Targownik LE, Fisher DA, Saini SD. AGA clinical practice update on de-prescribing of proton pump inhibitors: expert review. Gastroenterology 2022;162:1334-1342. https://www.gastrojournal.org/article/S0016-5085(21)04083-X/fulltext

Disclosures/Disclaimers: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Mercy Hospital-St. Louis, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, their affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

Do proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) reduce the risk of bleeding from lower gastrointestinal tract?

Is there any evidence that proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) benefit patients with acute pancreatitis?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Despite their widespread use, there is no firm evidence that PPIs should be routinely prescribed in the treatment of acute pancreatitis (AP).1   In fact, current guidelines do not include the use of PPIs as standard therapy in  AP. 1-3

Although a 2023 systematic review and meta-analysis involving 6 randomized controlled trials and 3 cohort studies of patients with AP found a significant decrease in the rate of pancreatic pseudocyst formation in patients who received PPI, no significant difference in the rates of 7-day mortality, length of hospital stay, or acute respiratory distress syndrome was found when compared to control groups.3

Theoretically, PPIs may improve the course of AP through reduction in the incidence of stress-related upper GI hemorrhagic complications.  However, the incidence of such complications in AP is quite low, ranging from 1.2% to 14.5%, with great majority of cases (>85%) unrelated to peptic ulcer disease. 3,4  These findings may help explain why it has been difficult to show any benefit for use of PPIs in reducing the incidence of GI bleed in AP.3,5

Similarly, although PPIs have been shown to reduce secretin-stimulated bicarbonate secretion by the pancreas, the clinical significance of this finding in the overall course of AP—except perhaps a lower risk of pseudocysts—remains unclear.3 Parenthetically, experimental studies have reported contradictory results regarding the inhibition of pancreatic enzyme production by PPIs,  with omeprazole failing to suppress amylase release in isolated pancreatic acini while pantoprazole showing reduced amylase secretion in rats.3

It is also unclear how the reported anti-inflammatory effects of PPIs may benefit the clinical course of AP.3,6 What is clear is that any potential benefits of PPIs in AP should be weighed against their potential adverse effects, including the risk of nosocomial pneumonia, Clostridiodes difficile infection, and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis.7,8 

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that PPIs may not only inhibit acid production by gastric parietal cells but also interfere with bactericidal activity of neutrophils?  One potential mechanism is interference with proton pump-dependent H202 generation within lysosomes necessary to create a highly acidic and bactericidal environment. 9  Fascinating!

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References

  1. Arvanitakis M, Dumonceau JM, Albert J, et al. Endoscopic management of acute necrotizing pancreatitis: European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) evidence-based multidisciplinary guideline. Endoscopy 2018; 50:524-46. Endoscopic management of acute necrotizing pancreatitis: European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) evidence-based multidisciplinary guideline – European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE)
  2. Crocket SD, Wani S, Gardner TB, et al. American Gastroenterological Association Institute Guideline on Initial Management of Acute Pancreatitis. Gastroenterology 2018;154:1096-1101. American Gastroenterological Association Institute Guideline on Initial Management of Acute Pancreatitis (gastrojournal.org)
  3. Horvath IL, Bunduc S, Hanko B , et al. No evidence for the benefit of PPIs in the treatment of acute pancreatitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Scientific Reports 2023;13:2791. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-29939-S
  4. Rana SS, Sharma V, Bhasin Dk, et al. Gastrointestinal bleeding in acute pancreatitis: etiology, clinical features, risk factors and outcome. Tropical Gastroenterology 2015;36:31-35. http://www.tropicalgastro.com/articles/36/1/gastrointestinal-bleeding-in-acute.html
  5. Demcsak A, Soos A, Kincses L, et al. Acid suppression therapy, gastrointestinal bleeding and infection in acute pancreatitis-An international cohort study. Pancreatology 2020;20:1323-31.lyso https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S142439032030658X?via%3Dihub
  6. Hackert T, Tudor S, Felix K, et al. Effects of pantoprazole in experimental acute pancreatitis. Comparative Study 2010;8:551-7. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20851132/
  7. Elzouki AB, Neffati N, Rasoul FA, et al. Increased risk of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in cirrhotic patients using proton pump inhibitors. GE Port J Gastroenterol 2019; 26:83-89. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6454390/#:~:text=The%20result%20showed%20that%20PPI,medical%20literature%20confirm%20this%20association.
  8. Yibirin M, De Oliveira D, Valera R, et al. Cureus 2021;13:e12759/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7887997/#:~:text=The%20most%20likely%20explanation%20for,incidence%20of%20pneumonia%20%5B2%5D
  9. Ozatik O, Ozatik EY, Tesen Y, et al. Research into the effect of proton pump inhibitors on lungs and leukocytes. Turk J Gastroenterol 2021;32:1003-1011. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8975296/

 

Disclosures/Disclaimers: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Mercy Hospital-St. Louis, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, their affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

 

Is there any evidence that proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) benefit patients with acute pancreatitis?

My hospitalized patient has developed acute nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Is there an association between proton pump inhibitors and acute gastroenteritis?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

 

Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) have been associated with increased risk of Clostridium difficile infection, as well as acute gastroenteritis (AG) caused by Salmonella, Campylobacter, and most recently, norovirus. 1,2

A recent prospective study1 of over 38,000 patients (mean age ~ 70 y) found a significant association between PPI use and AG leading to hospitalization with a dose-response relationship.  PPI use increased the risk of Salmonella, Campylobacter, and C. difficile infections.  Of note, H2 receptor antagonists were not associated with AG-related hospitalization in this study.

A 2017 retrospective case-control study also showed an association between PPI use and norovirus infection in hospitalized patients (mean age ~80 y in both groups). Most cases occurred during epidemic years with a median hospital stay of 5 days before onset of symptoms. Given the usually short incubation period of norovirus AG (typically 12-48 h), many of these cases likely acquired the infection during their hospital stay.

Besides reducing the acidity of gastric juice, PPIs may increase the risk of AG by causing an overgrowth of bacteria in the GI tract, reduce its motility and adversely affect the immune response, including neutrophil chemotaxis. 3

Does your patient really need a PPI?

 

References

  1. Chen Y, Liu B, Glass K, et al. Use of proton pump inhibitor and the risk of hospitalization for infectious gastroenteritis. PLoS One 2016;11:e0168618. Doi:10.1371/journal.pone. 0168618.   http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0168618    
  2. Prag C, Prag M, Fredlund H. Proton pump inhibitors as a risk factor for norovirus infection. Epidemiol Infect 2017;145:1617-23. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5426289/pdf/S0950268817000528a.pdf
  3. Wandall JH. Effects of omeprazole on neutrophil chemotaxis, super oxide production, degranulation, and translocation of cytochrome b-245. Gut 1992;33:617-21. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1319381
My hospitalized patient has developed acute nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Is there an association between proton pump inhibitors and acute gastroenteritis?

My patient with recent Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) needs a gastric acid-suppressant. Are histamine2-receptor antagonists (H2RAs) associated with CDI?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , Leave a comment

Although proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) have received much attention for their link with CDI, H2RAs have also been associated with CDI.  In a study of CDI among hospitalized patients, H2RA was associated with CDI (O.R. 1.53, 95% CI, 1.12-2.10); for daily PPI use the O.R. was 1.74 (95% CI, 1.39-2.18)1.  

A meta-analysis in 2013 reported an overall O.R. of 1.44 (95% CI 1.22-1.7) for CDI in patients treated with H2RAs2.  The estimated number needed to harm with H2RAs at 14 days after hospital admission was 58 for patients on antibiotics vs 425 for those not receiving antibiotics2.

Potential mechanism for H2RA-associated CDI is unclear, but survival of acid-sensitive vegetative forms of C. difficile in the stomach and their enhanced growth in the presence of bile salts related to gastro-esophageal reflux disease have been postulated2.

In brief, gastric acid suppression with H2RAs may increase the risk of CDI in hospitalized patients. 

 

References

  1. Howell MD Novack V, Grgurich P, et al. Iatrogenic gastric acid suppression and the risk of nosocomial Clostridium difficile infection. Arch Intern Med 2010; 170:784-790.
  2. Tleyjeh IM, Bin Abdulhak AA, Riaz M, et al. The association between histamine 2 receptor antagonist use and Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 2013; 8:e56498.
My patient with recent Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) needs a gastric acid-suppressant. Are histamine2-receptor antagonists (H2RAs) associated with CDI?

Is there really an association between proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) and Clostridium difficile infection (CDI)?

FA Manian MD, MPH, Leave a comment

Most studies report such an association but its strength has varied among studies.

Many earlier reviews and meta-analyses had significant limitations, including use of unadjusted data from observational studies, and not assessing heterogeneity (variation in study outcomes) and the effect of publication bias1.  A more recent meta-analysis of over 40 citations found an association between PPI use and CDI (O.R. 1.51, 95% CI, 1.26–1.83) adjusting for publication bias, but the association was weakened by the presence of significant heterogeneity in the published studies1. For the general population, the strength of the association was relatively weak (number needed to harm [NNTH] 3925 at 1 year), while for hospitalized patients it was much stronger (NNTH 50 at 2 weeks).

It is unclear how PPIs might increase risk of CDI as C. difficile spores are not killed by gastric acid2. They may interfere with the killing of the vegetative form of C. difficile by inhibiting gastric acid secretion or may delay gastric emptying with associated high intragastric bile salts which may trigger spore germination in the stomach; neither hypothesis has been proven, however2.  Although a causal relationship has not been proven, judicious use of PPIs in high risk patients for CDI is advised.

 

References

  • Tleyjeh IM, Bin Abdulhak AA, Riaz M, et al. (2012) Association between proton pump inhibitor therapy and Clostridium difficile infection: A contemporary systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 2012; 7: e50836.
  • Nerandzic MM, Pultz MJ, Donskey CJ. Examination of potential mechanisms to explain the association between proton pump Inhibitors and Clostridium difficile infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009;53(10): 4133–4137.
Is there really an association between proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) and Clostridium difficile infection (CDI)?