Potassium;

Why should I check serum magnesium level in my patient with hypokalemia in need of potassium replacement?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Short answer: Potassium and magnesium are highly intertwined in their physiological roles and magnesium is critical for renal retention of potassium.

Hypomagnesemia increases the release of renin from the kidney, leading to elevated levels of angiotensin II, which stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone. 1,2 The resulting secondary hyperaldosteronism contributes to refractory hypokalemia through increased sodium reabsorption via epithelial sodium channels (ENaC) in the distal nephron.  Increased sodium reabsorption in turn increases the expression and activity of the renal outer medullary potassium (ROMK) channels, which increases potassium secretion into the tubular lumen.1,3 Interestingly, magnesium also directly inhibits ROMK channels which, in the setting of hypomagnesemia, further leads to potassium loss.1,4

Parenthetically, most patients with mild to moderate hypomagnesemia are asymptomatic or have non-specific symptoms such as lethargy, muscle weakness or cramps. So don’t rely on symptoms to decide who should have their serum magnesium checked in the setting of hypokalemia. 5

Last, hypomagnesemia is not uncommon. It is found in 3-10% of general population, 10-30% of patients with type 2 diabetes, 10-60% of hospitalized patients and over 65% of those in the intensive care unit.5   What’s more concerning is that hypomagnesemia is also associated with an elevated risk of death from any cause and death from cardiovascular diseases.5

So, don’t forget to check serum magnesium level in your patient with hypokalemia in need of potassium replacement!

Bonus Pearls: Did you know that many drugs such as proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), thiazide and loop diuretics, aminoglycosides and chemotherapeutic agents are associated with magnesium wasting and hypomagnesemia, while sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors may be associated with increased renal magnesium reabsorption? 5

Contributed by Andy Wu, PhD, Medical Student, St. Louis University Medical School, St. Louis, Missouri

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References

  1. Huang CL, Kuo E. Mechanism of hypokalemia in magnesium deficiency. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007 Oct;18(10):2649-52. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2007070792. Epub 2007 Sep 5. PMID: 17804670. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17804670/
  2. AlShanableh Z, Ray EC. Magnesium in hypertension: mechanisms and clinical implications. Front Physiol. 2024 Apr 10;15:1363975. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2024.1363975. PMID: 38665599; PMCID: PMC11044701. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38665599/
  3. Valinsky WC, Touyz RM, Shrier A. Aldosterone, SGK1, and ion channels in the kidney. Clin Sci (Lond). 2018 Jan 19;132(2):173-183. doi: 10.1042/CS20171525. PMID: 29352074; PMCID: PMC5817097. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29352074/
  4. Rodan AR, Cheng CJ, Huang CL. Recent advances in distal tubular potassium handling. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2011 Apr;300(4):F821-7. doi: 10.1152/ajprenal.00742.2010. Epub 2011 Jan 26. PMID: 21270092; PMCID: PMC3074996. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21270092/
  5. Touyz RM, de Baaij JHF, Hoenderop JGJ. Magnesium Disorders. N Engl J Med. 2024 Jun 6;390(21):1998-2009. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra1510603. PMID: 38838313. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38838313/

Disclosures/Disclaimers: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Mercy Hospital-St. Louis, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, their affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

Why should I check serum magnesium level in my patient with hypokalemia in need of potassium replacement?

Why doesn’t my patient with lactic acidosis have hyperkalemia?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Although hyperkalemia may be observed in a variety of conditions associated with metabolic acidosis, it is less likely to be seen in conditions associated with excess organic acids (eg, in lactic acidosis or diabetic ketoacidosis). A likely explanation for this finding revolves around the amazing organic anion transporter (OAT) and its attendant role in counteracting hyperkalemia by bringing potassium (K+) back into the cells.1-5 See details of impact of extracellular and intracellular pH on K+ homeostasis in Figure.1 

Recall that in metabolic acidosis the increased concentration of hydrogen ion (H+) outside the cell reduces sodium (Na+) influx into cells through the Na+-H+ exchange channel resulting in a drop in the intracellular Na+.  Since the Na+K+ATPase ion channel depends on the intracellular Na+ for bringing K+ into the cells, the end-result is higher K+ concentrations in the extracellular space, potentially resulting in hyperkalemia.  This is what is often seen in conditions of mineral (non-organic) acid excess (eg, in respiratory acidosis or poor renal function).

In the case of organic acidosis, however, the OAT also plays an important factor in K+ homeostasis (Figure)1.  As the name suggests, this transporter allows  organic acids such as lactic acid or ketones to enter the cell. As the H+ concentration increases intracellularly, there is more Na+-H+ exchange and more influx of Na+ into the cell.  More available Na+ intracellularly means more Na+ is pumped out by Na+K+ATPase, and more K+ is brought into the cell,1-5 mitigating the impact of metabolic acidosis on K+ efflux into the  extracellular space and potentially even causing hypokalemia! 

Concurrent hyperkalemia and lactic acidosis or diabetic ketoacidosis may of course still occur.  However, in such cases, hyperkalemia is often due to an epiphenomenon related to complicating factors.  In the case of lactic acidosis, this may be related to concurrent renal dysfunction,3 while in diabetic ketoacidosis it may be related to hyperosmolarity or insulin deficiency.1

So next time you see a patient who has hyperkalemia and lactic acidosis, ask yourself  “What else am I missing that can explain the hyperkalemia?“.

Bonus Pearl

Did you know that lactic acid in human blood was first discovered by the German physician–chemist, Johann Joseph Sherer, who sampled post-mortem blood from 2 women who died of puerperal fever in 1843? 6

Contributed by Nabi Chaudhri-Martinez MD, Mercy Hospital-St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri

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References:

  1. Aronson PS, Giebisch G. Effects of pH on potassium: new explanations for old observations. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2011 Nov;22(11):1981-9. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2011040414. Epub 2011 Oct 6. PMID: 21980112; PMCID: PMC3231780. https://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/22/11/1981.long
  2. Orringer CE, Eustace JC, Wunsch CD, Gardner LB. Natural history of lactic acidosis after grand-mal seizures. A model for the study of an anion-gap acidosis not associated with hyperkalemia. N Engl J Med. 1977 Oct 13;297(15):796-9. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197710132971502. PMID: 19702. https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJM197710132971502?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed
  3. Fulop M. Serum potassium in lactic acidosis and ketoacidosis. N Engl J Med. 1979 May 10;300(19):1087-9. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197905103001905. PMID: 34793. https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJM197905103001905?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub 0pubmed
  4. Adrogué HJ, Madias NE. Changes in plasma potassium concentration during acute acid-base disturbances. Am J Med. 1981 Sep;71(3):456-67. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(81)90182-0. PMID: 7025622. https://www.amjmed.com/article/0002-9343(81)90182-0/pdf
  5. Nigam SK, Bush KT, Martovetsky G, et al. The organic anion transporter (OAT) family: A systems biology perspective. Physiol Rev 2015;95:83:123. The Organic Anion Transporter (OAT) Family: A Systems Biology Perspective (physiology.org)
  6. Kompanje EJ, Jansen TC, van der Hoven B, Bakker J. The first demonstration of lactic acid in human blood in shock by Johann Joseph Scherer (1814-1869) in January 1843. Intensive Care Med. 2007;33(11):1967-1971. doi:10.1007/s00134-007-0788-7 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2040486/

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Mercy Hospital-St. Louis, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, their affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

Why doesn’t my patient with lactic acidosis have hyperkalemia?

Why is my relatively healthy elderly patient so prone to hyperkalemia?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism (HH)—without impairment of cortisol synthesis— is associated with hyperkalemic (type IV) renal tubular acidosis (RTA) and is not uncommon among older patients despite glomerular filtration rates (GFRs) >20 ml/min, and absence of diabetes mellitus or chronic tubulointerstitial disease (1-7).  

Hyperkalemia due to HH in the elderly should come as no surprise because the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) function declines with age, reaching its lowest level by age 60. 1-4   In fact, older people have comparatively lower mean levels of plasma renin and aldosterone at baseline and have an impaired ability to mount appropriate responses to RAAS stimuli, such as upright posture, volume depletion, catecholamines, or potassium administration (3-5).

The impaired RAAS capacity in the elderly often becomes more obvious when they are prescribed medications that further suppress RAAS (3). These include angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, beta-blockers, calcium-channel blockers, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents and heparin (3,7). 

Drugs that increase aldosterone resistance, including potassium-sparing diuretics (eg, spironolactone, amiloride, triamterene, eplerenone) and certain antibiotics (eg, trimethoprim, pentamidine) may also aggravate hyperkalemia associated with HH (7). 

A variety of mechanisms leading to HH with aging have been proposed. These include impaired conversion of prorenin to renin, prostaglandin deficiency, sympathetic nervous system dysfunction and increased plasma levels of atrial natriuretic factors as found in congestive heart failure (1,7). 

Bonus pearl: Did you know that the first case of “pure hypoaldosteronism” was described in 1957 in a 71 year old non-diabetic patient with hyperkalemia in the setting of congestive heart failure? (8)

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References

  1. Bauer JH. Age-related changes in the renin-aldosterone system. Physiological effects and clinical implications. Drugs & Aging 1993;3:238-45. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8324299
  2. Musso CG, Jauregui JR. Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and the aging kidney. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab 2014;9:543-46. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1586/17446651.2014.956723
  3. Yoon HE, Choi BS. The renin-angiotensin system and aging in the kidney. Korean J Intern Med 2014;29:291-95. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262530577_The_renin-angiotensin_system_and_aging_in_the_kidney
  4. Nadler JL, Lee FO, Hsueh W, et al. Evidence of prostacyclin deficiency in the syndrome of hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism. N Engl J Med 1986;314:1015-20. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3515183
  5. Williams GH. Hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism. N Engl J Med 1986;314:1041-42. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3515186
  6.  Block BL, Bernard S, Schwartzstein RM. Hypo-hypo: a complex metabolic disorder. Ann Am Thorac Soc 2016;13:127-133. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26730868
  7. Michelis MF. Hyperkalemia in the elderly. Am J Kid Dis 1990;16:296-99.https://www.ajkd.org/article/S0272-6386(12)80005-9/pdf
  8. Hudson JB, Chobanian AV, Relman AS. Hypoaldosteronism. A clinical study of a patient with an isolated adrenal mineralocorticoid deficiency, resulting in hyperkaliemia and Stokes-Adams attack. N Engl J Med 1957;257:529-36. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13464977

 

Why is my relatively healthy elderly patient so prone to hyperkalemia?

How does excess licorice consumption cause hypertension and hypokalemia?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

The active ingredient of licorice, glycyrrhizic acid or glycyrrhizin, is first converted to glycyrrhetinic acid (GRA) in the bowel which is then absorbed. Once in the circulation, GRA inhibits activation of 11 β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 2 (11 β-HSD2), an enzyme in renal tissue that converts active cortisol to inactive cortisone. Without the full action of this enzyme, proper sodium and potassium homeostasis would be difficult because cortisol is just as effective in stimulating mineralocorticoid receptors as aldosterone but with 100-1000 times higher concentration than that of aldosterone! 1-3

Other ways that GRA may cause hypertension and hypokalemia include inhibition of 5 β-reductase in the liver, an enzyme that metabolizes aldosterone and direct stimulation of mineralocorticoid receptors, though overall these mechanisms may not be as important as the effect of GRA on cortisol metabolism in renal tissue.1,2

Besides causing fluid retention, licorice ingestion has also been found to increase systemic vascular resistance possibly by increasing vascular tone and remodeling of the vascular wall, potentiating the vasoconstrictor actions of angiotensin II and catecholamines in smooth muscle, and suppressing vasodilatory systems, including endothelial nitric oxide synthase and prostacyclin synthesis.

It’s no wonder that the FDA issued a statement in 2017: “If you’re 40 or older, eating 2 ounces of black licorice a day for a day for at least two weeks could land you in the hospital with an irregular heart rhythm or arrhythmia.” 5

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that as early as 1951, extract of licorice was reported for treatment of Addison’s disease, a combination of licorice and soy sauce has been reported to be “life-saving” in a patient with Addison’s disease (2007), and GRA food supplementation may lower serum potassium in chronic hemodialysis patients (2009)? 6,7

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References

  1. Sontia B, Mooney J, Gaudet L, et al. Pseudohyperaldosteronism, liquorice and hypertension. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2008; 10:153-57. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18256580
  2. Omar HR, Komarova I, El-Ghonemi M, et al. Licorice abuse: time to send a warning message. The Adv Endocrinol Metab 2012;3:125-138. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3498851/
  3. Penninkilampi R, Eslick EM, Eslick GD. The association between consistent licorice ingestion, hypertension and hypokalaemia: as systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Human Hypertension 2017;31:699-707. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28660884
  4. Black licorice: trik or treat? https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm 277152.htm
  5. Hautaniemi EJ, Tahvanainen AM, Koskela JK, et al. Voluntary liquorice ingestion increases blood pressure via increased volume load, elevated peripheral arterial resistance, and decreased aortic compliance. Sci Rep 2017;7:10947. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5591274/
  6. Groen J, Pelser H, Willebrands AF, et al. Extract of licorice for the treatment of Addison’s disease. N Engl J Med 1951;244:471-75. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14806786
  7. Cooper H, Bhattacharya B, Verma V, et al. Liquorice and soy sauce, a life-saving concoction in a patient with Addison’s disease. Ann Clin Biochem 2007;44:397-99. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17594790
  8. Farese S, Kruse Anja, Pasch A, et al. Glycyrrhetinic acid food supplementation lowers serum potassium concentration in chronic hemodialysis patients. Kidney International 2009;76:877-84. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19641483

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Mercy Hospital-St. Louis or its affiliate healthcare centers, Mass General Hospital, Harvard Medical School or its affiliated institutions. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

How does excess licorice consumption cause hypertension and hypokalemia?

Could constipation contribute to hyperkalemia in my patient with chronic kidney disease?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , Leave a comment

Yes! Constipation may be an important contributor to hyperkalemia in some patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD).

 Under normal conditions, 80-90% of excess dietary potassium (K+) is excreted by the kidneys, with the remainder excreted through the GI tract.1 However, in advanced CKD, particularly in the setting of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD), the GI tract assumes a much more important role in maintaining K+ balance. 

As early as 1960’s, the daily fecal excretion of K+ was found to be directly related to the wet stool weight, irrespective of creatinine clearance. Furthermore, K+ excretion in stool was as high as ~80% of dietary intake (average 37%) in some hemodialysis (HD) patients compared to normal controls (average 12%). 2

Such increase in K+ excretion in the GI tract of patients with CKD was later found to be primarily the result of K+ secretion into the colon/rectum rather than reduced dietary K+ absorption in the small intestine 1,3, was inversely related to residual kidney function, and as a consequence could serve as the main route of K+ excretion in patients with ESKD. 4

Collectively, these findings suggest that in addition to non-dietary factors such as medications, we may need to routinely consider constipation as a potential cause of hyperkalemia in patients with advanced CKD or ESKD. 1

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that secretion of K+ by the apical surface of colonic epithelial is mediated in part by aldosterone-dependent mechanisms? 5

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References

  1. St-Jules DE, Goldfarb DS, Sevick MA. Nutrient non-equivalence: does restricting high-potassium plant foods help to prevent hyperkalemia in hemodialysis patients? J Ren. Nutr 2016;26: 282-87. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26975777
  2. Hayes CP, McLeod ME, Robinson RR. An extrarenal mechanism for the maintenance of potassium balance in severe chronic renal failure. Trans Assoc Am Physicians 1967;80:207-16.
  3. Martin RS, Panese S, Virginillo M, et al. Increased secretion of potassium in the rectum of humans with chronic renal failure. Am J Kidney Dis 1986;8:105-10. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3740056
  4. Cupisti A, Kovesdy CP, D’Alessandro C, et al. Dietary approach to recurrent or chronic hyperkalemia in patients with decreased kidney function. Nutrients 2018, 10, 261;doi:10.3390/nu10030261. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5872679/
  5. Battle D, Boobes K, Manjee KG. The colon as the potassium target: entering the colonic age of hyperkalemia treatment. EBioMedicine 2015;2: 1562-1563. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4740340/pdf/main.pdf

 

Contributed in part by Alex Blair, MD, Mass General Hospital, Boston, MA.

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Could constipation contribute to hyperkalemia in my patient with chronic kidney disease?

Why isn’t my patient with congestive heart failure or end-stage liver disease losing weight despite being on diuretic therapy? Is the diuretic dose too low, or is the salt intake too high?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , Leave a comment

When a patient with congestive heart failure (CHF) or end-stage liver disease (ESLD) doesn’t respond as expected to diuretic therapy, measurement of urinary sodium (Na) can be helpful.

In low effective arterial blood volume states (eg, CHF and ESLD) aldosterone secretion is high, resulting in high urine potassium (K) and low urine Na concentrations. However, in the presence of diuretics, urinary Na excretion should rise.

Patients undergoing active diuresis are often restricted to a 2 g (88 mEq) Na intake/day, with ~10 mEq excreted via non-urinary sources (primarily stool), and ~ 78 mEq excreted in the urine to “break even” — that is, to maintain the same weight.

Although historically measured 1, a 24-hour urine Na and K collection is tedious, making spot urine Na/K ratio more attractive as a potential proxy.  Approximately 90% of patients who achieve a urinary Na/K ratio ≥1 will have a urinary Na excretion ≥78 mEq/day — that is to say, they are sensitive to the diuretic and will have a stable or decreasing weight at the current dose. 2,3

Urine Na/K may be interpreted as follows:

  • ≥1 and losing weight suggests effective diuretic dose, adherent to low Na diet
  • ≥1 and rising weight suggests effective diuretic dose, non-adherent to low Na diet
  • <1 and rising weight suggests ineffective diuretic dose

The “ideal” Na/K ratio as relates to responsiveness to diuretics has ranged from 1.0 to 2.5.4 In acutely decompensated heart failure patients on spironolactone, a K-sparing diuretic, Na/K ratio >2 at day 3 of hospitalization may be associated with improved outcome at 180 days. 5

Remember also that if the patient’s clinical syndrome is not correlating well with the ratio, it’s always a good idea to proceed to a 24-hour urine collection.

 

References

  1. Runyon B. Refractory Ascites. Semin Liver Dis. Semin Liver Dis. 1993 Nov;13(4):343-51. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8303315
  2. Stiehm AJ, Mendler MH, Runyon BA. Detection of diuretic-resistance or diuretic-sensitivity by spot urine Na/K ratios in 729 specimens from cirrhotics with ascites: approximately 90 percent accuracy as compared to 24-hr urine Na excretion (abstract). Hepatology 2002; 36: 222A.
  3. da Silva OM, Thiele GB, Fayad L. et al. Comparative study of spot urine Na/K ratio and 24-hour urine sodium in natriuresis evaluation of cirrhotic patients with ascites. GE J Port Gastroenterol 2014;21:15-20 https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4dc3/4d18d202c6fa2b30a1f6563baab80d877921.pdf
  4. El-Bokl M, Senousy, B, El-Karmouty K, Mohammed I, Mohammed S, Shabana S, Shelby H. Spot urinary sodium for assessing dietary sodium restriction in cirrhotic ascites. World J Gastroenterol 2009; 15:3631. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2721236/
  5. Ferreira JP, Girerd N, Medeiros PB, et al. Spot urine sodium excretion as prognostic marker in acutely decompensated heart failure: the spironolactone effect. Clin Res Cardiol 2016;105:489-507. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26615605

 

Contributed by Alyssa Castillo, MD, with valuable input from Sawalla Guseh, MD, both from Mass General Hospital, Boston, MA.

Why isn’t my patient with congestive heart failure or end-stage liver disease losing weight despite being on diuretic therapy? Is the diuretic dose too low, or is the salt intake too high?