Blood cultures;

My newly-admitted patient has positive blood cultures for Staphylococcus aureus.  How long should his S. aureus bacteremia be treated?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Because of the tendency of S. aureus bacteremia (SAB) to disseminate (eg, endocarditis, spinal epidural abscess, other metastatic infections), it should be treated with a minimum of 2 weeks of IV antibiotics following first repeat negative blood cultures, irrespective of the source of infection or rate of clinical improvement. 1-6

Beyond 2 weeks, the ultimate duration of parenteral antibiotics for treatment of SAB depends on several factors, including whether it is considered an “uncomplicated” or “complicated”. 1,2

Generally, uncomplicated SAB is defined as:

  • Negative results of follow-up blood culture at 2-4 days after bacteremia and
  • Clinical defervescence within 72 h of IV therapy and removal of the presumed focus of infection (eg, debridement of soft tissue infection or IV catheter) and
  • No evidence of metastatic infection among patients with catheter-related bloodstream infection or with primary bacteremia without evidence of endocarditis on transthoracic (TTE) or transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE) and
  • No endovascular foreign material (eg, prosthetic devices)

Patients not meeting the above criteria should be considered to have complicated SAB. Some studies have also reported primary bacteremia without obvious source and community-acquired SAB as risk factors for complications.4,6  

Even uncomplicated SAB should still receive at least 2 weeks of IV anti-staphylococcal therapy.  In a prospective observational study involving 111 patients with uncomplicated SAB, shorter course (<2 weeks) of IV antibiotic therapy was associated with significantly higher rate of relapse with a trend toward primary bacteremia associated with increased treatment failure.4

All other patients not considered to have an uncomplicated SAB, should receive extended antibiotic therapy (eg, 4-6 weeks or longer) depending on several factors, including clinical course and suspicion for a diagnosis of established metastatic disease (eg, endocarditis, spinal epidural abscess, etc…).  Continued parenteral antibiotic therapy is standard practice as there is insufficient data to support use of oral antibiotics in the treatment of complicated SAB before 4-6 weeks of therapy is completed.2

Standard practice in the treatment of SAB should also include an infectious disease (ID) consultation which has been associated with significantly reduced rates of mortality and risk of relapse.7

 Bonus Pearl: Did you know that SAB is associated with a mortality of 20-30% in developed countries despite antibacterial therapies and source control strategies? 1

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References

  1. Lam JC, Stokes W. The golden grapes of wrath—Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: A clinical review. Am J Med 2023, 136:19-26. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36179908/
  2. Kimming A, Hagel St, Weis S, et al. Management of Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infections. Frontiers in Medicine 2021; 7: Article 616524. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmed.2020.616524/full
  3. Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE, et al. Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children. Clin Infect Dis 52:e18-e55. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/216060
  4. Chong YP, Moon SM, Bang KM, et al. Treatment duration for uncomplicated Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia to prevent relapse: Analysis of a prospective observational cohort study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013;57:1150-56. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23254436/
  5. Kuehl R, Morata L, Boeing C, et al. Defining persistent Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: secondary analysis of a prospective cohort study. Lancet 2020;20: 1409-17. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32763194/
  6. Fowler VG, Olsen MK, Corey R, et al. Clinical identifiers of complicated Staphylococcus aureus Arch Intern Med 2003;163:2066-72. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14504120/
  7. Vogel M, Schmitz RPH, Hagel S, et al. Infectious disease consultation for Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia—A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect 2016, 72:19-28. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26453841/ 

Disclosures/Disclaimers: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Mercy Hospital-St. Louis, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, their affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

My newly-admitted patient has positive blood cultures for Staphylococcus aureus.  How long should his S. aureus bacteremia be treated?

My patient with pyelonephritis has positive blood cultures for E. coli? Should I order repeat blood cultures to make sure the bacteremia is clearing?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Although a common practice, follow-up blood cultures (FUBCs) may not be necessary in otherwise clinically stable or improving patients with aerobic gram-negative bacteremia. This is probably due to the often-transient nature of gram-negative bloodstream infections  and less propensity of these organisms to cause intravascular infections (eg, endocarditis) compared to gram-positives. 1

A 2017 study addressing the value of FUBCs in gram-negative bacteremia found that repeat positive blood cultures were uncommon with positive results not associated with mortality or higher ICU admissions. 1 Specifically, 17 FUBCs had to be drawn to yield 1 positive result.  Although the numbers of positive FUBCs were too low for in-depth analysis, it was concluded that FUBCs added little value in the management of gram-negative bacteremias.

In contrast, FUBCs are recommended in the following situations: 1-3

  • Staphylocccus aureus bacteremia given the propensity of this organism to cause intravascular (eg, endocarditis) and metastatic infections.
  • Presumed or documented endocarditis or intravascular device infections (eg, intravenous catheters and pacemakers) to document timely clearance of bacteremia
  • Infections involving organisms that may be difficult to clear such as fungemia or multi-drug resistant pathogens.

As with many things in medicine, clinical context is important before ordering tests and blood cultures are no different. The urge to order FUBCs should also be balanced with the possibility of having to deal with  contaminants. 

References

  1. Canzoneri CN, Akhavan BJ, Tosur Z et al. Follow-up blood cultures in gram-negative bacteremia: Are they needed? Clin Infect Dis 2017;65:1776-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29020307
  2. Tabriz MS, Riederer K, Baran J, et al. Repeating blood cultures during hospital stay: Practice pattern at a teaching hospital and a proposal for guidelines. Clin Microbiol Infect 2004;10:624-27. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2004.00893.x
  3. Mylotte JM, Tayara A. Blood cultures: Clinical aspects and controversies. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 200;19:157-63. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10795587

 

 

My patient with pyelonephritis has positive blood cultures for E. coli? Should I order repeat blood cultures to make sure the bacteremia is clearing?

Are two sets of blood cultures adequate for evaluation of bacteremia in my febrile patient?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , Leave a comment

For great majority of patients, more than 2 sets of blood culture obtained closely apart is not likely to significantly improve the yield of detecting bacteremia. 

Although a 2004 report suggested that 2 sets of blood cultures over 24 h period had a sensitivity of only 80% for bacteremia, several other studies have found much higher sensitivities, ranging from ~90%- 99% 2-3. When broken down by organism, sensitivity of 2 sets of blood cultures may be highest for Staphylococcus aureus (97%), followed by E. coli (91%), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (90%) 2.  The Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines recommend paired blood culture sets (each set with 2 bottles, 10 ml of blood in each) to detect about 90-95% of patients with documented bacteremia, and 3 sets for 95-99% detection rate 4.

It seems prudent to strike a balance between drawing more than 2 sets of blood cultures—with its attendant risk of picking up contaminants— and what may be a definite but small incremental increase in the rate of detection of true bacteremia. 

If you are concerned about “continuous” bacteremia (eg, in endocarditis) or a common blood culture contaminant causing true disease (eg, Staphylococcus epidermidis prosthetic valve infection), you may consider a 3rd or 4th set of blood cultures drawn 4-6 hrs after the initial sets.

Whatever you do,  please don’t order only 1 set of blood cultures! Aside from its generally low yield, when positive it may be difficult to distinguish contaminants from true invaders.

 

References

  1. Cockerill FR, Reed GS, Hughes JG, et al. Clinical comparison of BACTEC 9240 Plus Aerobic/F resin bottles and the Isolator aerobic cultures. Clin Infect Dis 2004;38:1724-30. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9163464
  2. Lee A, Mirrett S, Reller LB, et al. Detection of bloodstream infections in adults: how many cultures are needed? J Clin Microbiol 2007; 45:3546-48. http://jcm.asm.org/content/45/11/3546
  3. Towns ML, Jarvis WR, Hsueh PR. Guidelines on blood cultures. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2010;43:347-49. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20688297
  4. Weinstein MP, Reller LB, Murphy JR, et al. The clinical significance of positive blood cultures: a comprehensive analysis of 500 episodes of bacteremia and fungemia in adults. I. Laboratory and eipidemiologic observations. Rev Infect Dis 1982;5:35-53. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6828811
Are two sets of blood cultures adequate for evaluation of bacteremia in my febrile patient?

When is the best time to obtain blood cultures (BCs) from my patient admitted with recent fevers?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , Leave a comment

A common medical myth is that the yield of BCs is highest when obtained around the time of a fever spike. In 1989, an abstract reported a non-significant trend toward higher frequency of positive BCs in the period immediately before a fever spike1. In 1994, another study found no significant difference between the yield of simultaneous and serial (separated by a few hrs) BCs2, supporting the current practice of collecting ≥2 sets of BCs simultaneously.

In 2008, a multicenter retrospective study found that the likelihood of detecting bacteremia was not significantly enhanced by collecting BCs at the time of fever3.  Instead, obtaining an adequate blood volume (~40 – 60mL for each episode), and collecting ≥2 sets of BCs under strict aseptic technique were emphasized4. BCs should be obtained prior to antibiotic administration.

So in our patient, BCs should be obtained if sepsis is suspected, irrespective of fever.

 

References

  1. Thomson RB, et al. Timing of blood culture collection from febrile patients. Abstr. C-227. 89th Annual Meeting American Society of  Microbiology, Washington, DC, 1989. 
  2. Li J, et al.  Effects of volume and periodicity on blood cultures. J Clin Microbiol. 1994; 32:2829-2831. 
  3. Riedel S, et al. Timing of specimen collection for blood cultures from febrile patients with bacteremia. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46:1381-1385.
  4. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). Principles and Procedures for Blood Cultures: Approved Guideline. 2007. CLSI document M47-A. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, Wayne, PA

 

Contributed by Henrietta Afari, MD, Mass General Hospital, Boston, MA

When is the best time to obtain blood cultures (BCs) from my patient admitted with recent fevers?