Rectal temperature;

Is the average body temperature in adults lower than 98.6 ᵒF (37 ᵒC)?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Despite the widely-held belief that the normal body temperature is 98.6 ᵒF (37.0 ᵒC), it is becoming increasingly clear that the average body temperature among adults (at least in the U.S.) is actually lower than 98.6 ᵒF (37 ᵒC).

The concept of a single normal body temperature dates way back to the 1800’s, based on measuring axillary temperatures by mercury thermometers. 1 However, a 2001 systematic literature review of 20 studies (1935-1998) of normal body temperature measured in adults found the following mean temperatures: oral 97.5 ᵒF (36.4 ᵒC), rectal 98.4 ᵒF (36.9 ᵒC), tympanic 97.7 ᵒF (36.5 ᵒC), and axillary 97.3 ᵒF (36.3 ᵒC ).  A British study involving >35,000 patients also found a lower mean oral temperature of 97.9 ᵒF (36.6 ᵒC). 2 A 2020 US study of a cohort of >150,000 adults (2007-20017) found a mean oral temperature of 98.1 ᵒF (36.7 ᵒC) in men and 98.2 ᵒF (36.8 ᵒC) in women; these values were lower than that of an earlier cohort (1971-1975). 3

So is the discrepancy between the body temperature in 1800’s and the more recent era due to the differences in measurement techniques or the population? In other words, are we cooling off?

The weight of the evidence suggests that our bodies are cooling!3  The study of an 1860-1940 cohort—presumably using similar thermometer techniques —found a gradual drop in the mean temperature during that period alone. Since axillary temperature (accounting for some of the values in the earlier cohort) is about 1 ᵒC lower than that of oral temperature, the magnitude of the drop in mean temperatures over the past 150 years is likely higher that those reported. 3

Potential explanations for our cooling bodies over the past 2 centuries include reduction in the population level inflammation due to improved standard of living, sanitation, lower incidence of chronic infections. improved dental hygiene, and cooler ambient temperatures. 3

 

Fun Fact: Did you know that in 1851 Carl Wunderlich, a German physician, obtained millions of axillary temperatures from 25,000 patients in Leipzig and thereby established the standard body temperature of 98.6 ᵒF (37 ᵒC)? ᵒ

 

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References

  1. Sund-Levander M, Forsberg C, Wahren LK. Normal oral, rectal, tympanic and axillary body temperature in adult men and women: a systematic literature review. Scan J Caring Sci 2002;16:122-128. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12000664
  2. Obermeyer Z, Samra JK, Mullainathan S. Individual differences in normal body temperature: longitudinal big data analysis of patient records. BMJ 2017;359:j5468. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29237616
  3. Protsiv M, Ley C, Lankester J, et al. Decreasing human body temperature in the United States since the industrial revolution. Human Biology and Medicine, Jan 7, 2020. DOI: 10.7554/eLife.49555. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338433061_Decreasing_human_body_temperature_in_the_United_States_since_the_industrial_revolution
Is the average body temperature in adults lower than 98.6 ᵒF (37 ᵒC)?

How accurate are peripheral thermometers for estimating body temperature in my patient with chills?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Though convenient, oral, tympanic membrane, axillary, and temporal artery thermometers (AKA “peripheral thermometers”) may not be highly accurate in measuring body temperature.

A 2015 systematic review and meta-analysis of the performance of peripheral thermometers involving 75 studies (mostly in adults) found that compared to central thermometers (eg, pulmonary artery, urinary bladder, rectal), peripheral thermometers had a low sensitivity (64%, 95% CI 55%-72%), but much better specificity (96%, 95% CI 93%-97%) for fever (most commonly defined as 37.8° C [100° F] or greater).1

In the same study, for oral electronic thermometers, sensitivity was 74% with a specificity of 86%. For temporal artery thermometers, sensitivities ranged from 26% to 91%, while specificities ranged from 67% to 100%. For tympanic membrane thermometers, sensitivities ranged from 23% to 87%, with a specificity of 57% to 99%.

A 2016 study involving adult emergency department patients reported the sensitivity of peripheral thermometers (vs rectal temperature 38 C [100.4] or higher) as follows: oral (37%), tympanic membrane (68%), and temporal artery (71%). Specificity for fever was >90% for all peripheral thermometers. 2

So, it looks like while we may be pretty comfortable with a diagnosis of “fever” when our patient with chills has a high temperature recorded by a peripheral thermometer, lack of fever alone by these devices should not veer us away from the possibility of systemic infection. When in doubt and if possible, check a rectal temperature.

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References

  1. Niven DJ, Gaudet JE, Laupland KB. Accuracy of peripheral thermometers for estimating temperature: A systematic and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 2015;163:768-777. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26571241
  2. Bijur PE, Shah PD, Esses D. Temperature measurement in the adult emergency department: oral tympanic membrane and temporal artery temperatures versus rectal temperature. Emerg Med J 2016;33:843-7. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27334759

 

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

How accurate are peripheral thermometers for estimating body temperature in my patient with chills?