Author: FA Manian MD, MPH

What’s antibody-dependent enhancement and does it play a role in Covid-19?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) is an intriguing mechanism by which certain antibodies actually enhance viral replication by promoting entry of the pathogen into immune cells (eg, macrophages) resulting in worsening of the infection.1-4 Although these antibodies are pathogen-specific, they are commonly not neutralizing or only sub-neutralizing.4  So aside from not being able to protect the host from infection, they actually help the virus attack host cells!

Fortunately, there is no evidence that ADE contributes to pathogenesis of Covid-19 or SARS. 2,3 In fact, in contrast to the dengue virus, a classic cause of ADE,  SARS-CoV-2 does not seem to target or grow in macrophages; a related coronavirus, SARS-CoV is also unable to grow in macrophages infected through ADE.2,3

ADE was initially proposed as an explanation for severe Covid-19 cases in China.1 More specifically, it was thought that prior infection due to other coronaviruses (eg, common cold, SARS-CoV) in these patients was predisposing them to the development of severe Covid-19 following.   This hypothesis never panned out, however.  

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that in experimental studies, cats and ferrets have been found to be highly susceptible to  SARS-CoV-2, while dogs had low susceptibility and livestock, including pigs and chickens were not susceptible at all? 5

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 References

  1. Francesco N. Is antibody-dependent enhancement playing a role in COVID-19 pathogenesis. Swiss Med Wkly 2020;150:w20249. https://smw.ch/article/doi/smw.2020.20249
  2. Iwasaki A, Yang Y. The potential danger of suboptimal antibody responses in COVID-19. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41577-020-0321-6.pdf
  3. Peeples L. New feature: avoiding pitfalls in thepursuit of a COVID-19 vaccine. PNAS 2020:117:8218-8221. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7165470/
  4. Wan Y, Shang J, Sun S, et al. Molecular mechanism for antibody-dependent enhancement of coronavirus entry. J Virol 2020; 94:e02015.  https://jvi.asm.org/content/jvi/94/5/e02015-19.full.pdf 
  5. Shi J, Wen Z , Zhong G, et al. Susceptibility of ferrets, cats, dogs, and other domesticated animals to SARS-coronavirus 2.  Science 2020;10.1126/science.abb7015 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32269068/

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

What’s antibody-dependent enhancement and does it play a role in Covid-19?

What’s the evidence that patients with Covid-19 are at high risk of blood clots?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 1 Comment

Although we often think of it as a respiratory disease, emerging evidence suggests that Covid-19, particularly when severe,  is also associated with high risk of thrombotic events, including pulmonary embolism, venous thrombosis, and arterial thrombotic events.1

A Chinese study found that ICU patients with severe Covid-19 had a venous thromboembolism (VTE) incidence of 25%, with disseminated intravascular coagulopathy (DIC) found in the majority of fatal cases.2

A prospective Dutch study involving critically ill ICU patients with Covid-19 reported VTE in 27% and arterial thrombotic events in another 3.7%, despite standard VTE prophylaxis.3 The authors suggested the use of “high prophylactic doses” of anticoagulants in these patients due to concern over hypercoagulability.

An ICU French study also found high frequency of thrombotic complications in Covid-19 patients with ARDS, with 11.7% of patients having pulmonary embolism vs 2.1% in non-Covid-19 patients with ARDS. As with the Dutch study, thrombotic complications occurred despite standard prophylactic anticoagulation.4

Postmortem studies have also shown marked changes in lung microvasculature with the presence of microthrombi, with some calling it “pulmonary intravascular coagulopathy” to distinguish it from DIC.1

A NEJM letter reported 5 Covid-19 patients less than 50 years of age who presented with large vessel stroke symptoms without an alternative explanation.5 Of interest, 2 of these patients had no other symptoms suggestive of Covid-19.  A pre-print article from China reported an acute stroke incidence of 5% in hospitalized patients with Covid-19.6

The finding of a hypercoagulable state in patients with severe Covid-19 is not surprising given the frequent association of this infection with a high inflammatory state and the well-known capability of SARS-CoV-2 to attack the endothelial surfaces of blood vessels. High inflammatory state can promote activation of blood coagulation through release of inflammatory cytokines (eg, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-alpha).1

Perhaps even more intriguing is the finding of extremely high levels of factor VIII found in some Covid-19 patients which could make them hypercoagulable.7 This phenomenon should be suspected when a patient appears to be resistant to anticoagulation by heparin based on aPTT but not based on anti-Xa assay.7

 Bonus pearl: Did you know that the overall incidence of VTE is lowest among Asians-Pacific islanders, followed by Hispanics and Caucasians, with highest rate among African-Americans? 1 ,8

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References

  1. Fogarty H, Townsend L, Cheallaigh CN, et al. COVID-19 coagulopathy in Caucasian patients. Br J Haematol 2020, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/bjh.16749
  2. Cui S, Chen S, Li X, et al. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Prevalence of venous thromboembolism in patients with severe novel coronavirus pneumonia. J Thromb Haematol 2020, April 9. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/jth.14830
  3. Klok FA, Kruip MJHA, van der Meer NJM, et al. Incidence of thrombotic complications in critically ill ICU patients with COVID-19. Thromb Res 2020. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0049384820301201?via%3Dihub
  4. Helms J, Tacquard C, Severac F, et al. High risk of thrombosis in patients in severe SARS-CoV-2 infection: a multicenter prospective cohort study. Intensive Care Med 2020; https://www.esicm.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/863_author_proof.pdf
  5. Oxley TJ, Mocco J, Majidie S, et al. Large-vessel stroke as a presenting feature of Covid-19 in the young. N Engl J Med. 2020, April 28. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMc2009787?query=featured_home
  6. Li Y, Wang M. Acute cerebrovascular disease following COVID-19: A single center, retrospective, observational study. 2020. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3550025
  7. Beun R, Kusadasi N, Sikma M, et al. Thromboembolic events and apparent heparin resistance in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. Int J Lab Hematol 2020, April 20. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ijlh.13230
  8. White RH, Keenan CR. Effects of race and ethnicity on the incidence of venous thromboembolism. Thromb Res 2009;123 Suppl 4:S11-S17. doi:10.1016/S0049-3848(09)70136-7

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

What’s the evidence that patients with Covid-19 are at high risk of blood clots?

Does Covid-19 affect males more than females?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Although there is no clear gender pattern in terms of susceptibility to Covid-19, once infected, men have consistently been shown to have higher fatality rates when compared to women.1

In an earlier study involving over 1000 Covid-19 patients, males accounted for 58% of cases.2  However, a review of over 72,000 patients reported by the Chinese CDC found nearly equivalent male to female ratio (~1:1).3 Among Covid-19 patients who have died, male to female ratio has frequently been found to be between 1.5-3.8:1, depending on the reporting country.1  

In a case series from New York City, males accounted for 55% of Covid-19 patients not on invasive mechanical ventilation but 71% of those who required invasive mechanical ventilation.4 Chinese CDC reported case fatality rates of 2.8% for males and 1.7% for females.3 Higher case-fatality rates among males with 2 other coronavirus-related diseases, SARS and MERS, have also been reported.5

Potential explanations for more fatal outcomes among males with Covid-19 include more robust innate and humoral immune responses to infections among females.6 Immune suppressive activity of testosterone and potential immune enhancing effects of estrogens, such as increased expression of the anti-viral cytokine interferon (IFN)-gamma, have long been recognized.6 Life style differences between men and women such as higher prevalence of smoking in men are often mentioned as well.7 Interestingly, circulating ACE2, a receptor for SARS-CoV-2, has also been reported to be higher in men.8

Bonus pearl: Did you know that testosterone is associated with decreased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha and may suppress immunoglobulin production?6

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 References

  1. Global Health 5050. Towards gender equality in global health. http://globalhealth5050.org/covid19/ , accessed April 27, 2020.
  2. Guan WJ, Ni AY, Hu Y, et al. Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med 2020;Feb 28, 2020. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2002032
  3. Chinese CDC. Vital surveillances: the epidemiological charcteristics of an outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus diseases (COVID-19)-China, 2020; 2:113-22. http://weekly.chinacdc.cn/en/article/id/e53946e2-c6c4-41e9-9a9b-fea8db1a8f51
  4. Goyal P, Choi JJ, Pinheiro LC, et al. Clinical characteristics of Covid-19 in New York City. N Engl J Med 2020, April 17. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMc2010419
  5. Channappanavar R, Fett C, Mack M, et al. Sex-based differences in susceptibility to SARS-CoV infection. J Immunol 2017;198:4046-4053. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5450662/#!po=3.84615
  6. Ysrraelit MC, Correale J. Impact of sex hormones on immune function and multiple sclerosis development. Immunology 2018;156:9-22. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/imm.13004
  7. Wenham C, Smith J, Morgan R. COVID-19: the gendered impacts of the outbreak. Lancet 2020:395:846-7. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32151325
  8. Patel SK, Velkoska E, Burrell LM. Emerging markers in cardiovascular disease: Where does angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 fit in? Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2013;40:551-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23432153/

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

 

Does Covid-19 affect males more than females?

Should I consider a direct oral anticoagulant (DOAC) for my patient with pancreatic cancer and pulmonary embolism?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Classically, anticoagulant (AC) of choice in active malignancy with venous thromboembolism (VTE) has been low-molecular weight heparin (LMWH) (eg, enoxaparin) because of trials showing its superiority over warfarin. But now the pendulum is swinging toward DOACs as an alternative mode of treatment.

A 2018 trial found that oral edoxaban (an Xa inhibitor) was noninferior to subcutaneous dalteparin (a LMWH) with the composite outcome of recurrent VTE or major bleeding.1 Overall, recurrent VTE was significantly lower in edoxaban (7.9% vs 11.3%) but had higher major bleeding (6.9% vs 4.05). Of note, edoxaban was initiated after 5 days of treatment with LMWH.

More recently, the 2020 Caravaggio trial, showed non-inferiority of apixaban (at a dose of 10 mg twice daily for the first 7 days, followed by 5 mg twice daily) to dalteparin with recurrent VTE of 5.6% in the apixaban group vs 7.9% in the dalteparin.2 There was no significant difference in rates of major bleeding (3.8% vs 4%). A prior small study, the ADAM-VTE trial, compared apixaban to dalteparin in patients with malignancy and VTE.3 Apixaban had significantly lower VTE recurrence rates (0.7% to 6.3%) and non-significant lower major bleeding (0% vs 1.4%, p=0.138) consistent with the newer and larger trial. Of note, this trial excluded patients with brain tumor and had few patients with upper GI or hematologic malignancy.  

In addition, a pilot study, the SELECT-D trial, compared rivaroxaban to dalteparin.4 Rivaroxaban had significantly lower VTE recurrence (4% vs 11%), without a significant increase in major bleeding (6% vs 4%), but had an increased number of clinically relevant non-major bleeds (13% vs 4%), particularly in cancers of the upper GI tract.

Although decision regarding use of DOACs in patients with malignancy should be made on case-by-case basis, they are increasingly considered for treatment of VTE in this patient population with the strongest evidence supporting apixaban or the initial use of LMWH for 5 days followed by edoxaban.  

Contributed by Sean Mendez MD, Mass General Hospital, Boston, MA.

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References:  

  1. Raskob GE, van Es N, Verhamme P, Carrier M, Di Nisio M, Garcia D, Grosso MA, Kakkar AK, Kovacs MJ, Mercuri MF, Meyer G, Segers A, Shi M, Wang TF, Yeo E, Zhang G, Zwicker JI, Weitz JI, Büller HR. Edoxaban for the Treatment of Cancer-Associated Venous Thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2018 Feb 15;378(7):615-624. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1711948. Epub 2017 Dec 12. PubMed PMID: 29231094.
  2. McBane Ii R, Loprinzi CL, Ashrani A, Perez-Botero J, Leon Ferre RA, Henkin S, Lenz CJ, Le-Rademacher JG, Wysokinski WE. Apixaban and dalteparin in active malignancy associated venous thromboembolism. The ADAM VTE Trial. Thromb Haemost. 2017 Oct 5;117(10):1952-1961. doi: 10.1160/TH17-03-0193. Epub 2017 Aug 24. PubMed PMID: 28837207.
  3. Agnelli G, Becattini C, Meyer G, Muñoz A, Huisman MV, Connors JM, Cohen A, Bauersachs R, Brenner B, Torbicki A, Sueiro MR, Lambert C, Gussoni G, Campanini M, Fontanella A, Vescovo G, Verso M. Apixaban for the Treatment of Venous Thromboembolism Associated with Cancer. N Engl J Med. 2020 Mar 29;. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1915103. [Epub ahead of print] PubMed PMID: 32223112.
  4. Young AM, Marshall A, Thirlwall J, Chapman O, Lokare A, Hill C, Hale D, Dunn JA, Lyman GH, Hutchinson C, MacCallum P, Kakkar A, Hobbs FDR, Petrou S, Dale J, Poole CJ, Maraveyas A, Levine M. Comparison of an Oral Factor Xa Inhibitor With Low Molecular Weight Heparin in Patients With Cancer With Venous Thromboembolism: Results of a Randomized Trial (SELECT-D). J Clin Oncol. 2018 Jul 10;36(20):2017-2023. doi: 10.1200/JCO.2018.78.8034. Epub 2018 May 10. PubMed PMID: 29746227.

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

Should I consider a direct oral anticoagulant (DOAC) for my patient with pancreatic cancer and pulmonary embolism?

My 75 year old patient has an arterial oxygen tension (Pa02) less than 90 mmHg on room air. Does age affect PaO2?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Short answer: Yes! Most studies of blood gas concentrations have demonstrated a decrease in oxygen tension with age.1

Earlier studies have demonstrated a linear decrease in oxygen tension based on observations that included relatively small number of patients over the age of 60. 1 More recently, however, in a study of 532 consecutive patients admitted for elective surgery without overt cardiac, pulmonary, or metabolic disease, obesity or smoking, the mean PaO2 differed by age group as follows:

  • <30 years: 98.4 mmHg
  • 30-50 years: 88.7 mmHg
  • 51-70 years: 81.0 mmHg
  • >70 years: 76.5 mmHg

After age 70 years, decline in Pa02 may slow down or actually reverse, likely related to the “survival of the fittest” in more advanced years. 1,2 Some have suggested accepting a PaO2 80-85 mmHg as normal for subjects > 65 years of age. 3

The decrease in PaO2 with age is a result of increased heterogeneity of ventilation/perfusion ratio, especially reduced ventilation in the dependent parts of the lung. 3 Aging is also associated with a decrease in chest wall compliance, muscle (including the diaphragm) strength, forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1), vital capacity, and diffusing capacity of carbon monoxide (DLC0)/alveolar volume.  

In addition, aging is associated with a reduction in response to hypoxia and hypercarbia, making older patients particularly vulnerable to complications from  heart failure and pneumonia4, especially in the current Covid-19 era.

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that poor response to hypoxic or hypercarbic states in the elderly is likely related to an age-related decline in efferent neural output to respiratory muscles?4

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References

  1. Blom H, Mulder M, Verwej W. Arterial oxygen tension and saturation in hospital patients: effect of age and activity. BMJ 1988;297:720-2. Doi:10.1136/bmj.297.6650.720 https://www.bmj.com/content/297/6650/720   
  2. Delclaux B, Orcel B, Housset B, et al. Arterial blood gases in elderly persons with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Eur Respir J 1994;7:856-61. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/15147788_Arterial_blood_gases_in_elderly_persons_with_chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease_COPD
  3. Janssens JP, Pache JC, Nicod LP. Physiological changes in respiratory function associated with ageing. Eur Respir J 1999;13:197-205. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12689073_Physiological_changes_in_respiratory_function_associated_with_ageing
  4. Sharma G, Goodwin J. Effect of aging on respiratory system physiology and immunology. Clin Interventions in Aging 2006;1:253-60. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18046878/

 

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

 

 

My 75 year old patient has an arterial oxygen tension (Pa02) less than 90 mmHg on room air. Does age affect PaO2?

What do eyes, nose, and toes have to do with Covid-19?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Increasingly, we are finding out that the clinical manifestations of Covid-19 are not limited to the respiratory tract and that several other areas of the body, including the eyes, nose, and toes, may also be affected.

Eyes: In a study1 of 38 patients with Covid-19, 12 (32%) had eye manifestations consistent with conjunctivitis (or “pink eye”), including conjunctival hyperemia, chemosis, epiphora (watering eyes) and increased secretions; none had blurred vision. Most patients had more severe manifestations of Covid-19. Tears from 2 patients tested positive for Covid-19 virus (SARS-Co-V-2) by PCR.

Nose: Altered sense of smell was reported in 4 of 9 mild Covid-19 cases, 2 without rhinitis.2 Loss of sense of smell or anosmia has been reported in 30% or more of patients as their major presenting symptom of Covid-19 in otherwise mild cases by the British Rhinological Society (unpublished data).3  Another study found a 5% prevalence of hyposmia (unpublished).4 In addition to infecting mucosal surfaces inside the nose, the coronaviruses may infect nerve cells.5 Fortunately, sense of smell alterations appear temporary.

Toes: Findings that may mimic frostbite or chilblains with erythema or bluish/purplish discoloration of toes along with pain, itching or burning have been described in patients with Covid-19.6,7 Anecdotally, many cases been observed in relatively healthy or younger patients.  Whether these changes are due to known coagulation and/or endothelial derangements in Covid-19 or other causes is not clear.8,9

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that ACE2 receptors have reportedly been found in abundance in the testes (not ovaries)10 and testicular pain has also been reported in a Covid-19 patient seen without respiratory symptoms?11

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 References

  1. Wu P, Duan F, Luo C, et al. Characteristics of ocular findings of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Hubei province, China. JAMA Ophthalmology 2020; March 31. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaophthalmology/fullarticle/2764083
  2. Wolfel R, Corman VM, Guggemos W, et al. Virological assessment of hospitalized patients with COVID-2019. Nature 2020;April 1. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2196-x
  3. Hopkins C, Kumar N. Loss of sense of smell as marker of COVID-19 infection. https://www.entuk.org/sites/default/files/files/Loss%20of%20sense%20of%20smell%20as%20marker%20of%20COVID.pdf
  4. Mao L, Wang M, Chen S, et al. Neurological manifestations of hospitalized patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective case series study. https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.02.22.20026500v1
  5. Perlman S, Jacobsen G, Afifi A. Spread of a neurotropic murine Coronavirus into the CNS via the trigeminal and olfactory nerves. Virology 1989;170:556-560 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0042682289904467
  6. Mazzotta F, Troccoli T, Bonifazi E. A new vasculitis at the time of COVID-19. Eur J Ped Dermatol 2020. https://www.ejpd.com/images/nuova-vasculite-covid-ENG.pdf
  7. Lee YJ. “Covid toes” might be the latest unusual sign that people are infected with the novel coronavirus. April 23, 2020. https://www.businessinsider.com/covid-toes-frostbite-coronavirus-skin-lesion-discolored-swollen-feet-2020-4
  8. Zhang Y, Xiao M, Zhang S, et al. Coagulopathy and antiphospholipid antibodies in patients with Covid-19. N Eng J Med 2020;382:e38. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMc2007575
  9. Varga Z, Flammer AJ, Steiger P, et al. Endothelial cell infection and endothelial cell infection and endotheliitis in COVID-19. Lancet 2020; April 17. https://www.thelancet.com/action/showPdf?pii=S0140-6736%2820%2930937-5
  10. Kim J, Thomsen T, Sell N, et al. Abdominal and testicular pain: an atypical presentation of COVID-19. Am J Emerg Med 2020 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2020.03.052
  11. Fan C, Li K, Ding Y, et al. ACE2 expression in kidney and testis may cause kidney and testis damage. medRxiv 2020. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.12.20022418.t
     

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

 

 

What do eyes, nose, and toes have to do with Covid-19?

How common are acute kidney abnormalities in patients with Covid-19?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Although early reports suggested a low incidence (3-9%) of AKI among Covid-19 patients, more recent studies have shown higher frequencies of renal abnormalities, including albuminuria and hematuria (1).

 
A study of 59 patients with Covid-19 reported that 34% had “massive albuminuria” on the first day of admission, and 63% developed proteinuria during their hospitalization (2 [unpublished]). BUN was elevated in 27% of patients and in two-thirds of those who died. In another study involving 710 patients with Covid-19, nearly one-half had proteinuria and hematuria and a quarter had hematuria on admission. Overall, around 15% of patients had an elevated serum creatinine and BUN (3).

 
Possible explanations for renal manifestations of Covid-19 include sepsis, cytokine storm, secondary infections, and direct cellular injury due to the virus itself (1, 4). Interestingly, SARS-CoV-2 has been reportedly isolated from the urine sample of a Covid-19 patient (1). This should not be surprising given the presence of ACE2 receptors in the proximal tubules and, at lower concentrations, in the glomeruli (5).

 
An autopsy study of patients with Covid-19 found evidence of diffuse proximal tubule injury with the loss of brush border, vascular degeneration but no vasculitis, interstitial inflammation or hemorrhage. Coronavirus particles were found in the tubular epithelium and podocytes (6).

 
Bonus Pearl: Did you know that proteinuria (2-3+) and hematuria are independent risk factors for in-hospital mortality (3)?

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References
1. Naicker S, Yang CW, Hwang SJ. The novel coronavirus 2019 epidemic and kidneys. Kidney International 2020, May. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kint.2020.03.001
2. Li Z, Wu M, Guo J, et al. Caution on kidney dysfunctions of 2019-nCoV patients . medRxiv 2020.02.08.20021212
3. Cheng Y, Luo R, Wang K, et al. Kidney disease is associated with in-hospital death of patients with COVID-19. Kidney International 2020;97:829-38.
4. Su H, Yang M, Wan C, et al. Renal histopathological analysis of 26 postmortem findings of patients with COVID-19 in China. Kidney International 2020, April 9. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0085253820303690  
5. Mizuiri S, Ohashi Y. ACE and ACE2 in kidney disease. World J Nephrol 2015;4:74-82. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4317630/
6. Cheng N, Zhou M, Dong X, et al. Kidney impairment is associated with in-hospital death of COVID-19 patients. medRxive 2020 .0218.20023242. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.18.20023242.

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

 
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How common are acute kidney abnormalities in patients with Covid-19?

How often is the liver affected by Covid-19?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Abnormal liver enzymes in patients with Covid-19 are common, particularly in those with severe disease.

 
Elevated levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) have been reported in 14-53% of patients in several case series. More severe cases appear to have a higher prevalence of AST elevation (1). As some cases also have elevated creatine kinase (CK), the relative contribution of muscles to these enzyme abnormalities is unclear (2).

 
A small study involving ICU patients with Covid-19 reported a prevalence of elevated AST of 62% compared to 25% in non-ICU patients (3). Other studies have confirmed lower incidence of AST abnormality among patients with mild or subclinical disease (4,5).

 
Although much of the published reports of liver injury in Covid-19 have revolved around AST and ALT abnormalities, gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) may also be elevated. GGT was abnormal in 54% of patients with Covid-19 during their hospitalization with alkaline phosphatase elevation reported in ~2.0% (1, unpublished reports). Elevation of total bilirubin has also been reported occasionally (1).

 
Although the exact mechanism(s) of Covid-19-related is unclear, direct viral infection of liver cells is one possibility as viremia has been documented in some cases (1). Of interest, a related coronavirus, SARS-CoV-1 has been shown to infect liver tissue and cholangiocytes may express ACE2 receptors, a prime target for Covid-19 virus (1,6,7, unpublished reports).

 

Despite these observations, to date, viral inclusions have not been demonstrated in the liver. Other possible causes of liver injury in Covid-19 include innate immune dysregulation, cytokine storm, hypoxia and drugs (1,2).

 

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References
1. Zhang C, Shi L, Wang FS. Liver injury in COVID-19:management and challenges. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 2020; March 4. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-1253(20)30057-1
2. Bangash MN, Patel J, Parekh D. COVID-19 and the liver: little cause for concern. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 2020;March 20. https://doi.org/10.1016/52468-1253(20)30084-4
3. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020;395:497-506. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31986264/
4. Guan WJ, Ni ZY, Hu Y, et al. Clinical characteristics of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in China. N Engl J Med 2020;published online Feb 28. DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa2003032
5. Shi H, Han X, Jiang N, et al. Radiological findings from 81 patients with COVID-19 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet Infect Dis 2020; published onlineFeb 24. DOI:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30086-4 (lancet 8)
6. Chai X, Hu L, Zhang Y, et al. Specific ACE2 expression in cholangiocytes may cause liver damage after 209-nCoV infection. bioRxiv 2020;published online Feb 4. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.03.931766.
7. Xu Z, Shi L, Wang Y, et al. Pathological findings of COVID-19 associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Lancet Respir Med 2020; published online Feb 18. DOI:10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30076-X

 

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

 

How often is the liver affected by Covid-19?

How common are cardiac complications in Covid-19?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Although we often think of Covid-19 as a respiratory disease, cardiovascular complications are not uncommon.

Myocardial injury based on elevated cardiac troponin levels have been reported in ~20% of patients with Covid-19.1,2 Among deceased patients with Covid-19 without underlying cardiovascular disease, ~12.0% have been reported to have “substantial heart damage” based on elevated levels of troponins or cardiac arrest.1  

Arrythmias have also been reported in a significant number of patients (~20.0% in those on invasive mechanical ventilation). 3,4

Reports of Covid-19-associated acute onset heart failure, myocardial infarction, myocarditis and pericarditis have also appeared in the literature. 4-6

Proposed mechanisms of acute myocardial injury include direct binding of the virus to ACE2 receptors which are present not only in the lungs but also cardiac endothelial and smooth muscle cells of myocardial vessels as well as in cardiac myocytes. 1,7,8 Myocardial injury may also be a consequence of Covid-19-related cytokine storm or respiratory insufficiency.1

Interestingly, patient with heart failure have increased expression of ACE2 which may make them particularly vulnerable to myocardial injury and failure after Covid-19 infection. 8

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that a type of perivascular mural cell called “pericyte” makes up a significant part of the myocardium and—in contrast to relatively low expression of ACE2 in cardiac myocytes— expresses ACE2 at high levels, potentially serving as an important target for Covid-19 virus? 8

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 References

  1. Zheng YY, Ma YT, Zhang JY, et al. Covid-19 and the cardiovascular system. Nature Rev 2020, May. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41569-020-0360-5
  2. Yang xz, Yu Y, Xu J, et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a single-centered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respir Med 2020, Feb 24. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7102538/
  3. Goyal P, Choi JJ, Pinheiro LC, et al. Clinical characteristics of Covid-19 in New York City 2010. N Engl J Med 2020. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMc2010419 https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMc2010419
  4. Covid-19 clinical guidance for the cardiovascular care team. American College of cardiology 2020. https://www.acc.org/~/media/665AFA1E710B4B3293138D14BE8D1213.pdf
  5. Hu H, Ma F, Wei X, et al. Coronavirus fulminant myocarditis treated with glucocorticoid and human immunoglobulin. Eur Heart J 2020. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32176300/
  6. Hua A, O’Gallaher KO, Sado D. Life-threatening cardiac tamponade complicating myo-pericarditis in Covid-19. Eur Heart J 2020. https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article/doi/10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa253/5813280
  7. Gallager PE, Ferrario CM, Tallant EA. Regulation of ACE2 in cardiac myocytes and fibroblasts. Am J Physiol heart Circ Physiol 2008;295:H2373-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2614534/
  8. Chen L, Li X, Chen M, et al. The ACE2 expression in human heart indicates new potential mechanism of heart injury among patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. Cardiovasc Res 2020, March 13. https://academic.oup.com/cardiovascres/article/doi/10.1093/cvr/cvaa078/5813131

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

How common are cardiac complications in Covid-19?

How common are gastrointestinal symptoms in Covid-19?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Although GI symptoms such as diarrhea or nausea were initially thought to be uncommon among Covid-19 patients,1,2 more recent reports suggest that GI symptoms are relatively common.3-8

A review article found that as many as 50.0% of Covid-19 patients had diarrhea, ~30.0% had nausea, ~14.0% had gastrointestinal bleed, and 6.0% had abdominal pain.8  In a case series from New York City, ~25.0% of patients presented with diarrhea, while ~20.0% had nausea and vomiting. 9 

Some patients may have GI symptoms in the absence of any respiratory complaints.  Fecal tests for RNA  have found nearly one-third to a half of patients with Covid-19 shedding the virus, with some patients testing positive even after  respiratory specimens test negative.8 How often these patients harbor viable or infectious virus is not known, however.

Some have reported that as the severity of the disease worsens so do the GI symptoms.3 GI symptoms have also been associated with later presentation of Covid-19, higher liver enzymes and longer prothrombin time.3

Although the exact mechanism of GI symptoms in Covid-19 is unclear, direct invasion of virus is a plausible explanation. Indeed, potential targets for SARS-CoV-2 virus, the ACE2-expressing cells, have been identified in the GI tract, including the esophagus, gastric, intestinal and colonic epithelial cells.5,8  

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 References

 

  1. Guan WJ, Ni ZY, Hu Y, et al. Clinical characteristics of Coronavirus disease 2019 in China. N Eng J Med 2020, Feb 28. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2002032
  2. Young BE, Ong SWX, Kalimuddin S, et al. Epidemiologic features and clinical course of patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 in Singapore. JAMA. March 3, 2020. (17% diarrhea) https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2762688
  3. Pan L, Mu M, Yang P, et al. Clinical characteristics of COVID-19 patients with digestive symptoms in Hubei, China: a descriptive, cross-sectional, multicenter study. Am j Gastroenterol 2020. https://journals.lww.com/ajg/Documents/COVID_Digestive_Symptoms_AJG_Preproof.pdf
  4. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novle coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020;395:497-506. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30183-5/fulltext
  5. Gu J, Han B, Wang J. COVID-19: Gastrointestinal manifestations and potential fecal-oral transmission. J Gastroenterol https://www.gastrojournal.org/article/S0016-5085(20)30281-X/pdf
  6. Wolfel R, Corman VM, Guggemos W, et al. Virological assessment of hospitalized patients with Covid-2019. Nature, April 1, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1038/a41586-020-2196-x
  7. Xiao F, Tang M, Zheng X, et al. Evidence of gastrointestinal infection of SARS-CoV-2. Gastroenterology 2020, March 3. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016508520302821?via%3Dihub
  8. Tian Y, Rong L, Nian W, et al. Review article: gastrointestinal features in COVID-19 and the possibility of faecal transmission. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2020;March 29. https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.15731
  9. Goyal P, Choi JJ, Pinheiro LC, et al. Clinical characteristics of Covid-19 in New York City. N Engl J Med 2020.  https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMc2010419

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

 

How common are gastrointestinal symptoms in Covid-19?