pneumonia

Should I choose a bactericidal over bacteriostatic antibiotic in the treatment of my patient with pneumonia complicated by bacteremia?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

You don’t have too!  Although “bacteriostatic” antibiotics have traditionally been regarded as inferior to “bactericidal” antibiotics in the treatment of serious infections, a 2018 “myth busting” systemic literature review1 concluded that bacteriostatic antibiotics are just as effective against a variety of infections, including pneumonia, non-endocarditis bacteremia, skin and soft tissue infections and genital infections; no conclusion can be made in regards to endocarditis or bacterial meningitis, however, due insufficient clinical evidence.1-3

Interestingly, most of the studies included in the same systemic review showed that bacteriostatic antibiotics were more effective compared to bactericidal antibiotics.1 So, for most infections in hospitalized patients, including those with non-endocarditis bacteremia, the choice of antibiotic among those that demonstrate in vitro susceptibility should not be based on their “cidal” vs “static” label.

Such conclusion should not be too surprising since the definition of bacteriostatic vs bactericidal is based on arbitrary in vitro constructs and not validated by any available in vivo data. In addition, static antibiotics may kill bacteria as rapidly as cidal antibiotics in vitro at higher antibiotic concentrations.3

Another supportive evidence is a 2019 study finding similar efficacy of sequential intravenous-to-oral outpatient antibiotic therapy for MRSA bacteremia compared to continued IV antibiotic therapy despite frequent use of bacteriostatic oral antibiotics (eg, linezolid, clindamycin and doxycycline). 4

 

References

  1. Wald-Dickler N, Holtom P, Spellberg B. Busting the myth of “static vs cidal”: as systemic literature review. Clin Infect Dis 2018;66:1470-4. https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/66/9/1470/4774989
  2. Steigbigel RT, Steigbigel NH. Static vs cidal antibiotics. Clin Infect Dis 2019;68:351-2. https://academic.oup.com/cid/article-abstract/68/2/351/5067395
  3. Wald-Dickler N, Holtom P, Spellberg B. Static vs cidal antibiotics; reply to Steigbigel and Steigbigel. Clin Infect Dis 2019;68:352-3. https://academic.oup.com/cid/article-abstract/68/2/352/5067396?redirectedFrom=fulltext
  4. Jorgensen SCJ, Lagnf AH, Bhatia S, et al. Sequential intravenous-to-oral outpatient antbiotic therapy for MRSA bacteraemia: one step closer.  J Antimicrob Chemother 2019;74:489-98.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30418557

 

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Should I choose a bactericidal over bacteriostatic antibiotic in the treatment of my patient with pneumonia complicated by bacteremia?

When should I consider prophylaxis for Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in my patient on prednisone?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , Leave a comment

It is generally recommended that patients on ≥20 mg of daily prednisone (or its equivalent) for ≥1 month be considered for PCP prophylaxis. 1

Couple of studies in 1990s helped define the dose and duration of corticosteroids (CS) that should prompt PCP prophylaxis. A Mayo Clinic study of patients without AIDS found that a median daily CS dose of 30 mg of prednisone or equivalent—with 25% of patients receiving as little as 16 mg of prednisone daily— was associated with PCP.2  The median duration of CS therapy before PCP was 12 weeks. A similar study found a mean CS dose of 33 mg of prednisone or equivalent with mean duration of 7 months (range 1-154 months) among patients with PCP without AIDS. 3

A 2018 retrospective study4  of patients with rheumatic diseases receiving prolonged high-dose CS therapy (≥30 mg prednisone for ≥4 weeks) found that PCP prophylaxis with trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/STX) resulted in 93% reduction in the incidence of PCP with an overall number needed to treat (NNT) of 52. It was suggested that PCP prophylaxis could be discontinued in patients receiving < 15 mg of prednisone daily.

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that TMP/STX may be given either as double-strength 3x/week or single-strength daily? 5,6

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References

1. Limper AH, Knox KS, Sarosi SA, et al. An official American Thoracic Society statement: Treatment of fungal infections in adult pulmonary and critical care patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;183:96-128. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21193785

2. Yale SH, Limper AH. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients without acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: associated illness and prior corticosteroid therapy. Mayo Clin Proc 1996;71:5-13. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0025619611649148

3. Arend SM, Kroon FP, van’t Wout JW. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients without AIDS, 1980 through 1993: An analysis of 78 cases. Arch Intern Med 1995;155:2436-2441. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7503602

4. Park JW, Curtis JR, Moon J, et al. Prophylactic effect of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for Pneumocystis pneumonia in patients with rheumatic diseases exposed to prolonged high-dose glucocorticoieds. Ann Rheum Dis 2018;77:664-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29092853

5. Anevlavis S, Kaltsas K, Bouros D. Prophylaxis for pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in non-HIV infected patients. PNEUMON 2012;25, October-December.http://www.pneumon.org/assets/files/789/file483_273.pdf

6. Stern A, Green H, Paul M, Leibovici L. Prophylaxis for pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in non-HIV immunocompromised patients (Review). Cochrane data of Systematic Reviews 2014, issue 10. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD005590.pub3. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25269391

 

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Mercy Hospital-St. Louis or its affiliate healthcare centers, Mass General Hospital, Harvard Medical School or its affiliated institutions. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

 

 

When should I consider prophylaxis for Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in my patient on prednisone?

My hospitalized patient with pneumonia has now suffered an acute myocardial infarction (MI). Can acute infection and MI be related?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Yes! Ample epidemiological studies implicate infection as an important risk factor for MI.1 The increased risk of MI has been observed during the days, weeks, months or even years following an infection.

A 2018 paper reported a several-fold risk of MI during the week after laboratory-confirmed infection caused by a variety of respiratory pathogens such as influenza virus (6-fold), respiratory syncytial virus (4-fold), and other respiratory viruses (3-fold). 2 Among patients hospitalized for pneumococcal pneumonia, 7-8% may suffer an MI.3,4 One study found a 48-fold increase in the risk of MI during the first 15 days after hospitalization for acute bacterial pneumonia.5 Similarly, an increase in the short-term risk of MI has been observed in patients with urinary tract infection and bacteremia.6

The risk of MI appears to be the highest at the onset of infection and correlates with the severity of illness, with the risk being the highest in patients with pneumonia complicated by sepsis, followed by pneumonia and upper respiratory tract infection. Among patients with pneumonia, the risk exceeds the baseline risk for up to 10 years after the event, particularly with more severe infections.1

Potential mechanisms of MI following infections include release of inflammatory cytokines (eg, interleukins 1, 6, tumor necrosis factor alpha) causing activation of inflammatory cells in atherosclerotic plaques, in turn resulting in destabilization of the plaques. In addition, the thrombogenic state of acute infections, platelet and endothelial dysfunction may increase the risk of coronary thrombosis at sites of plaque disruption beyond clinical resolution of the acute infection. 1

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References

  1. Musher DM, Abers MS, Corrales-Medina VF. Acute infection and myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2019;380:171-6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30625066
  2. Kwong JC, Schwartz KL, Campitelli MA, et al. Acute myocardial infarction after laboratory-confirmed influenza infection. N Engl J Med 2018;378:345-53. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1702090
  3. Musher DM, Alexandraki I, Graviss EA, et al. Bacteremic and nonbacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia: a prospective study. Medicine (Baltimore) 2000;79:210-21. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10941350
  4. Musher DM, Rueda Am, Kaka As, Mapara SM. The association between pneumococcal pneumonia and acute cardiac events. Clin Infect Dis 2007;45:158-65. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17578773
  5. Corrales-Medina VF, Serpa J, Rueda AM, et al. Acute bacterial pneumonia is associated with the occurrence of acute coronary syndromes. Medicine (Baltimore) 2009;88:154-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19440118
  6. Dalager-Pedersen M, Sogaard M, Schonheyder HC, et al. Risk for myocardial infarction and stroke after community-acquired bacteremia: a 20-year population-based cohort study. Circulation 2014;129:1387-96. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24523433

 

My hospitalized patient with pneumonia has now suffered an acute myocardial infarction (MI). Can acute infection and MI be related?

How can I tell if my febrile patient who uses IV drugs had cotton fever?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Although IV drug use (IVDU) is associated with febrile illness of numerous etiologies (eg, soft tissue infections, pneumonia, bacteremia, endocarditis), certain features of a febrile illness may be helpful in considering cotton fever (CF) as the cause.1-3

First, onset of fever—often associated with chills, shortness of breath, nausea, vomiting, headache, abdominal pain and myalgias—in CF is usually manifest within 10-30 minutes of drug injection. Second, infectious disease workup, including blood cultures and chest radiograph, are unrevealing despite clinical signs of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), such as leukocytosis, tachypnea and tachycardia. Third, symptoms and clinical signs of inflammation usually resolve or improve within 6-12 h of onset (less commonly up to 24-48 h). Nevertheless, CF remains a diagnosis of exclusion.

As for the cause of CF, the most widely-held theory revolves around the endotoxin of Pentoea agglomerans (formerly Enterobacter agglomerans), a gram-negative rod that colonizes cotton plants. Since cotton is often used as a filter during injection of illicit substances, any endotoxin present in the cotton is also injected resulting in abrupt onset of a febrile illness. Of note, the toxin is water soluble and heating (often part of the preparation of the drug) enhances its toxic effect.3

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References

  1. Zerr AM, Ku K, Kara A. Cotton Fever: a condition self-diagnosed by IV drug users. JABFM 2016;29: 276-279.PDF
  2. Xie Y, Pope BA, Hunter AJ. Cotton fever: does the patient know best? J Gen Intern Med 31:442-4. PDF
  3. Torka P, Gill S. Cotton fever: an evanescent process mimicking sepsis in an intravenous drug abuser. J Emerg Med 2013;44:e385-e387. PDF
How can I tell if my febrile patient who uses IV drugs had cotton fever?

How should I interpret the growth of “normal respiratory flora” from sputum of my patient with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP)?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Since the primary reason for obtaining a sputum culture in a patient with pneumonia is to sample the lower respiratory tract, you should first verify that the sputum was “adequate” by reviewing the gram stain. Absence of neutrophils (unless the patient is neutropenic) with or without epithelial cells on gram stain of sputum suggests that it may not be an adequate sample (ie, likely saliva)1, and therefore growth of normal respiratory flora (NRF) should not be surprising in this setting.  

Other potential explanations for NRF on sputum culture in patients with CAP include:2-5

  • Delay in sputum processing with possible overgrowth of oropharyngeal flora.
  • Pneumonia caused by pathogens that do not grow on standard sputum culture media (eg, atypical organisms, viruses, anaerobes).
  • Pneumonia caused by potential pathogens such as as Streptococcus mitis and Streptococcus anginosus group that may be part of the NRF.
  • Initiation of antibiotics prior to cultures (eg, in pneumococcal pneumonia).

Of note, since 2010, several studies have shown that over 50% of patients with CAP do not have an identifiable cause.3 So, growing NRF from sputum of patients with CAP appears to be common.

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References

  1. Wong LK, Barry AL, Horgan SM. Comparison of six different criteria for judging the acceptability of sputum specimens. J Clin Microbiol 1982;16:627-631. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7153311
  2. Donowitz GR. Acute pneumonia. In Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases (2010). Churchill Livingstone, pp 891-916.
  3. Musher DM, Abers MS, Bartlett JG. Evolving understanding of the causes of pneumonia in adults, with special attention to the role of pneumococcus. Clin Infect Dis 2017;65: 1736-44. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29028977
  4. Abers MS, Musher DM. The yield of sputum culture in bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia after initiation of antibiotics. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58:1782. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24604901
  5. Bartlett JG, Gorbach SL, Finegold SM. The bacteriology of aspiration pneumonia. Bartlett JG, Gorbach SL, Finegold SM. Am J Med 1974;56:202-7. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4812076
How should I interpret the growth of “normal respiratory flora” from sputum of my patient with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP)?

My patient with acute exacerbation of heart failure and pulmonary edema also has pneumonia. How often do heart failure and pneumonia coexist?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , Leave a comment

More often than you might think! The relationship between pneumonia and heart failure (HF) appears bidirectional with pneumonia precipitating heart failure (HF) and HF predisposing to it.

Although It’s often quoted that acute respiratory tract infection accounts for 3-16% of patients hospitalized with decompensated heart failure (HF) (based primarily on small observational studies),1 a 2016 large prospective study involving nearly 100,000 HF admission from 305 US hospitals has reported “pneumonia/respiratory process” as the most common precipitating clinical factor, present in 28.2% of cases (arrhythmia and medication noncompliance came in as 2nd and 3rd).2

Interestingly, the same study reported that pneumonia/respiratory process was most prevalent among patients with preserved (≥50%) ejection fraction (EF) compared to those with borderline ( 40%-49%) or reduced (<40%) EF (33% vs 30% vs 24%, respectively). 2

Pulmonary edema may in turn predispose to bacterial pneumonia through adverse effects of edema fluid on lung bacterial defense mechanisms and establishment of a culture medium for bacterial growth by the presence of fluid in the alveolar space.3

So don’t be surprised if you have to treat for both!

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References

  1. Thomsen RW, Kasatpibal N, Riis A, et al. The impact of pre-existing heart failure on pneumonia prognosis: Population-based cohort study. J Gen Intern Med 2008;23:1407-13. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18574639
  2. Kapoor JR, Kapoor R, Ju C, et al. Precipitating clinical factors, heart failure characterization, and outcomes in patients hospitalized with heart failure with reduced, borderline, and preserved ejection fraction. JACC 2016;4:464-72. https://www.scholars.northwestern.edu/en/publications/precipitating-clinical-factors-heart-failure-characterization-and 
  3. Harris GD, Woods DE, Fine R, et al. The effect of intraalveolar fluid on lung bacterial clearance. Lung 1980; 158;91-100 Harris GD, Woods DE, Fine R, et al. The effect of intraalveolar fluid on lung bacterial clearance. Lung 1980; 158;91-100. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02713708

 

 

My patient with acute exacerbation of heart failure and pulmonary edema also has pneumonia. How often do heart failure and pneumonia coexist?

In my patient with a serious infection, when should I worry about a primary immunodeficiency disorder?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

You may consider a primary immunodeficiency disorder (PID) when 2 or more of the following “warning signs” are present: 1

  • ≥ 4 ear infections in 1 year
  • ≥ 2 serious sinus infections in 1 year
  • ≥ 2 pneumonias in 1 year
  • Recurrent, deep skin or organ abscesses
  • Persistent thrush in mouth or persistent fungal infection on the skin
  • ≥ 2 deep-seated infections, including septicemia
  • ≥ 2 months on antibiotics with little effect
  • Need for IV antibiotics to clear infections
  • Failure of an infant to gain weight or grow normally
  • Family history of primary immunodeficiency

Other infectious conditions that may be a clue to PID include those in unusual locations (eg, pneumococcal arthritis) or caused by unusual pathogens (eg, Pneumocystis jirovecii).

Among non-infectious conditions, history of granulomas in multiple organs, early-onset eczema refractory to therapy, and autoimmunity (eg, autoimmune cytopenias, autoimmune thyroiditis, celiac disease, vitiligo, type I diabetes mellitus) may also be potential clues.2

But before you embark on searching for PID,  rule out local barrier disorders of the skin or mucosa (eg, foreign body, bronchiectasis, cystic fibrosis) and secondary causes of immunodeficiency (eg, HIV), syndromes of protein loss/deficiency (eg, cirrhosis, nephrotic syndrome, malnutrition), splenectomy, malignancy, and medications (eg, steroids, chemotherapy, tumor necrosis factor inhibitors).2

Final Fun Fact: Did you know that PID affects 1 in 1,200 people in the US? 3

References:

  1. Arkwright PD, Gennery AR. Ten warning signs of primary immunodeficiency: a new paradigm is needed for the 21st century. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2011; 1238:7-14 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06206.x/abstract
  2. Hausmann O, Warnatz K. Immunodeficiency in adults a practical guide for the allergist. Allergo J Int. 2014; 23: 261–268 https://link-springer-com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/article/10.1007/s40629-014-0030-4
  3. Boyle JM, Buckley RH. Population prevalence of diagnosed primary immunodeficiency diseases in the United States. J Clin Immunol 2007; 27:497  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10875-007-9103-1

 

Contributed by Yousef Badran, MD, Mass General Hospital, Boston, MA.

In my patient with a serious infection, when should I worry about a primary immunodeficiency disorder?

The urine antigen for Legionella in my patient with severe community-associated pneumonia is negative. How well does it rule out Legionella pneumonia?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , Leave a comment

Not as well as you might think!

Legionella urine antigens are 60%-80% sensitive (>99% specific) for detecting L. pneumophila serogroup 1 which accounts for about 70%-80% of Legionnaire’s disease (LD) in the US1; there are at least 15 serogroups.2 So as many as 40% or more LD may be missed by urine antigen testing alone. 2 

Urine antigen can be excreted as early 3 days after the onset of symptoms and can persist for >300 days which may present a problem in diagnosing a current illness in patients with recurrent pneumonia. 2 One study reported lowest sensitivity (80%) for antigen testing during days 4 to 7 days of symptoms.3

Other means of looking for Legionella include culture of respiratory samples for L. pneumophila which can detect all types of Legionella species (sensitivity 20%-80%) but has a lengthy turnaround time. Paired antibody testing may also be performed (sensitivity 70%-80%) in undiagnosed cases of severe pneumonia. 1

Take home point: Don’t depend totally on urine antigen testing to rule out LD.

Final fun fact: Did you know that legionellae survive in the aquatic environment by parasitizing free-living protozoa?

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References

  1. CDC. Legionellosis: United States, 2000-2009. MMWR 2011;60:1083-86. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6032a3.htm
  2. Fields BS, Benson RF, Besser RE. Legionella and Legionnaire’s disease: 25 years of investigation. Clin Micro Rev 2002;15:506-26. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12097254  
  3. Kohler RB, Zimmerman SE, Wilson E, et al. Onset and duration of urinary antigen excretion in Legionnaire’s disease. J Clin Microbiol 20:605-7. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC271393
The urine antigen for Legionella in my patient with severe community-associated pneumonia is negative. How well does it rule out Legionella pneumonia?

My patient with pulmonary embolism also reports new-onset hiccups. Are the two conditions related?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , Leave a comment

Hiccups (AKA singultus) are due to the involuntary contraction of the inspiratory muscles, especially the diaphragm. The hiccup reflex involves an afferent limb ( eg, the phrenic and vagus nerves, sympathetic fibers from T6-T12,  brainstem) and an efferent limb, primarily the phrenic nerve1,2.  Thus, the irritation of any part of the arc in the head, neck, chest, or abdomen may potentially lead to hiccups.

Conditions involving the chest cavity that may be associated with hiccups include lung cancer, GERD, herpetic esophagitis, myocardial ischemia, bronchitis, empyema, lung masses, pneumonia, pleuritis, and pacemaker lead injury 1-3.

Reports of patients with PE and persistent hiccups (lasting longer than 48 h) have also appeared in the literature1,3. Of interest, in a report involving 3 patients, 2 had submassive or “large” PE, with one displaying the classic EKG changes of S1Q3T3; the size of PE in another was not reported1.  In another case report, PE was “not small” and involved the anterior and lateral lower lobe segments of pulmonary artery2.  Although the exact mechanism of PE causing hiccups is not clear, irritation of the afferent or efferent limb of the reflex arc in the chest has been postulated.  

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References

  1. Hassen GW, Singh MM, Kalantari H, et al. Persistent hiccups as a rare presenting symptom of pulmonary embolism. West J Emerg Med 202;13:479-483.
  2. Durning SJ, Shaw DJ, Oliva AJ et al. Persistent hiccups as the presenting symptom of a pulmonary embolism. Chest Disease Reports 2012;2:e2.
  3. Buyukhatipoglu H, Sezen Y, Yildiz A, et al. Hiccups as a sign of chronic myocardial ischemia. S Med J 2010;103: 1184-85.
My patient with pulmonary embolism also reports new-onset hiccups. Are the two conditions related?

What causes the “tree-in-bud” (TIB) opacities on the chest CT images of my patient with cough?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , Leave a comment

TIB opacities represent a normally invisible branches of the bronchiole tree (≤1 mm in diameter) that are severely impacted with mucous, pus, or fluid, with resultant dilatation and “budding” of the terminal bronchioles ( ≥2 mm in diameter)1 (photo).

Although initially described in 1993 as a thin-section chest CT finding in active tuberculosis, TIB opacities are by no means restricted to a specific lung entity, and may be of infectious as well as non-infectious causes.

TIB is most commonly seen with infectious bronchiolitis caused by bacteria (particularly Staphylococcus aureus, Hemophilus influenzae), mycobacteria (including atypical mycobacteria), viruses (eg, respiratory syncytial virus, cytomegalovirus), and fungi (eg, Pneumocystis jirovecii, Aspergillus sp.)1,2.

Non-infectious causes include inhalation of toxic gases, connective tissue disorders (eg, rheumatoid arthritis, Sjögren syndrome), cystic fibrosis, Kartagener syndrome, and non-infectious bronchiolitis (eg, obliterative bronchiolitis). Malignancy-related causes include chronic lymphocytic leukemia and pulmonary tumor embolism in breast, liver, kidney, stomach, prostate and ovarian cancers3.

References

  1. Collins J, Blankenbaker D, Stern EJ. Ct patterns of bronchiolar disease: What is “tree-in’bud”? AJR 1998;171:365-70.
  2. Rossi SE, Franquet T, Volpacchio M, et al. Tree-in-bud pattern a t thin-section CT of the lungs: radiologic-pathologic overview. RadioGraphics 2005;25:789-801.
  3. Terhalle E, Gunther G. “Tree-in-bud”: thinking beyond infectious causes. Respiration 2015;89:162-165.

 

 

Photo: TIB opacities in a 50 year old man with productive cough and shortness of breath caused by infectious bronchiolitis.

treeinbud

 

What causes the “tree-in-bud” (TIB) opacities on the chest CT images of my patient with cough?