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My patient recently underwent total knee arthroplasty (TKA) and is now found to have a Baker’s cyst. Is Baker’s cyst a postoperative complication of TKA?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Not likely! There is no evidence that TKA causes Baker’s cyst (also known as popliteal cyst). Instead, the finding of Baker’s cyst following TKA may be best explained by its well-known association with osteoarthritis, one of the main indications for TKA.1,6,7

In a study of 2025 patients who underwent primary TKA, 0.6% were diagnosed with Baker’s cysts within 6 weeks to 2 years postoperatively (75% symptomatic), but whether the cysts were present prior to TKA was unclear. There was no reported association between surgical technique or perioperative course and Baker’s cyst diagnosis.9

Actually, there might be a correlation between TKA and Baker’s cyst resolution.2,3 Among patients with known cysts preoperatively, 15% and 67% of patients may experience resolution of the cyst at 1 year and 4-6 years following surgery, respectively. 2,3

A Baker’s cyst is a fluid-filled pocket in the posterior aspect of the knee, typically seen in adults with degenerative changes in the patellofemoral joint, as may occur with meniscal tears and arthritis. When symptomatic, it can be treated non-operatively with ultrasound-guided aspiration and corticosteroid injection or operatively with surgical excision or attempted repair of the underlying defect. 4,8

 

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that the ‘crescent sign’ (bruising below the medial malleolus associated with fluid from ruptured cyst moving inferiorly toward the ankle) was first described in 1976 and may help distinguish calf pain due to Baker’s cyst from that of deep venous thrombophlebitis? 5

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 Contributed by Anamika Veeramani, Medical Student, Harvard Medical School

 

References

  1. Guermazi A., Hayashi D., Roemer F, et al. Cyst-like lesions of the knee joint and their relation to incident knee pain and development of radiographic osteoarthritis: The MOST study. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage 2010; 18:1386-1392. doi:10.1016/j.joca.2010.08.015. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20816978/
  2. Hommel H., Becker R., Fennema P., et al. (2020). The fate of Baker’s cysts at mid-term follow-up after total knee arthroplasty. The Bone & Joint Journal, 2020;102-B(1):132-136. doi:10.1302/0301-620x.102b1.bjj-2019-0273.r2. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31888367/
  3. Hommel, H., Perka, C., Kopf, S. The fate of Baker’s cyst after total knee arthroplasty. The Bone & Joint Journal 2016;98-B(9):1185-1188. doi:10.1302/0301-620x.98b9.37748. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27587518/
  4. Leib AD, Roshan A, Foris LA, et al. Baker’s Cyst. [Updated 2020 Mar 16]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2020 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430774/
  5. Mizumoto, J. The crescent sign of ruptured baker’s cyst. Journal of General Family Medicine, 2019;20(5): 215-216. doi: 10.1002/jgf2.261. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6732489/
  6. Rupp, S., Seil, R., Jochum, P., & Kohn, D. Popliteal Cysts in Adults. The American Journal of Sports Medicine 2002; 30(1): 112-115. doi:10.1177/03635465020300010401. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11799006/
  7. Sansone, V., Ponti, A. D., Paluello, G. M., & Maschio, A. D. Popliteal cysts and associated disorders of the knee. International Orthopaedics 1995;19(5): 275-279. doi:10.1007/bf00181107. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8567131/
  8. Smith, M., Lesniak, B., Baraga, M., Kaplan, L., Jose, J. Treatment of Popliteal (Baker) Cysts with Ultrasound-Guided Aspiration, Fenestration and Injection: Long-term Follow-up. Sports Health 2015; 7(5): 409-414. doi: 10.1177/1941738115585520. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4547114/
  9. Tofte, J. N., Holte, A. J., & Noiseaux, N. Popliteal (Baker’s) Cysts in the Setting of Primary Knee Arthroplasty. The Iowa Orthopedic Journal 2017;37:177-180. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28852354/

 

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

My patient recently underwent total knee arthroplasty (TKA) and is now found to have a Baker’s cyst. Is Baker’s cyst a postoperative complication of TKA?

Is intermittent pneumatic compression effective in reducing the risk of deep vein thrombosis in non-surgical hospitalized patients at high risk of major bleed?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

The weight of the evidence to date suggests that intermittent pneumatic compression (IPC) is effective in reducing the risk of deep venous thrombosis (DVT) in hospitalized patients with stroke. 1,2 Whether IPC is also effective in non-surgical hospitalized patients without stroke at high risk of DVT and major bleed needs further studies.

A 2013 multicenter randomized trial (CLOTS 3) involving over 2,000 immobile hospitalized patients post-stroke found a significantly lower risk of DVT in proximal veins or any symptomatic DVT in the proximal veins within 30 days of randomization (8.5% vs 12.1%; absolute reduction risk 3.6%, 95% C.I. 1.4-5.8). Of note, the rate of concurrent heparin or low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) prophylaxis was similar between the 2 groups (17%). 1

A meta-analysis including the CLOTS 3 study and 2 other smaller trials 2 in patients with stroke found a risk reduction for proximal DVT (O.R. 0.66, 95% C.I 0.52-0.84) with nearly significant reduction in deaths by the end of the treatment period (O.R. 0.81, 95% 0.65-1.01).1

Although IPC may also be effective in non-surgical hospitalized patients without stroke but at high risk of DVT and bleed, proper trials in this patient population is lacking. In fact, the 2012 American College of Chest Physicians guidelines on antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis classifies use of IPC in preventing DVT’s in non-surgical acutely ill hospitalized patients as category 2C recommendation (weak, low quality evidence). 3

The patient population and methodology of above studies should be distinguished from those of a 2019 published trial involving only critically ill patients—all receiving pharmacologic thromboprophylaxis—which reported no reduction in the incidence of proximal lower-limb DVT with the addition of IPC. 4

 

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that venous thromboembolism has been reported in up to 42% of hospitalized patients who have had a stroke? 1

 

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References

  1. Dennis M, Sandercock P, Reid J, et al. Effectiveness of intermittent pneumatic compression in reduction of risk of deep vein thrombosis in patients who have had a stroke (CLOTS 3): a multicenter randomized controlled trial. Lancet 2013;382:516-24. https://www.thelancet.com/cms/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61050-8/attachment/1a0438d2-86eb-4da1-8bdb-92c0aec18b8d/mmc1.pdf
  2. Naccarato M, Chiodo Grandi F, Dennis M, et al. Physical methods for preventing deep vein thrombosis in stroke. Cochrance Database Syst Rev 2010;8:CD001922. https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001922.pub3/full
  3. Guyatt GH, Akl EA, Crowther M, et al. Executive summary: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. CHEST 2012;141 (suppl):7S-47S. http://www.sphcs.org/workfiles/CardiacVascular/7S-full.pdf
  4. Arabi YM, Al-Hameed F, Burns KEA, et al. Adjunctive intermittent pneumatic compression for venous thromboprophylaxis. N Engl J Med 2019;380:1305-15. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30779530/

 

 

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

Is intermittent pneumatic compression effective in reducing the risk of deep vein thrombosis in non-surgical hospitalized patients at high risk of major bleed?

What’s the role of small droplets or aerosolized particles in the transmission of Covid-19?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , 2 Comments

Although transmission of SARS-CoV-2 is often considered to occur through large respiratory droplets by coughing or sneezing, emerging data suggests that smaller respiratory particles (5 microns or less) generated by breathing, speaking or singing also account for a sizeable number of infections. Several lines of evidence make a cogent argument for aerosols serving as an important mode of transmission for SARS-CoV-2. 1-9

 First, there are ample accounts of SARS-CoV-2 spreading by being near an infected individual without symptoms.  Since by definition, those without symptoms do not cough or sneeze transmission must have occurred through other means, including breathing, talking or touching surfaces that might have become secondarily contaminated through aerosol.1,2,5  To make matters worse, the peak of contagion in infected individuals occurs on or before symptoms occur.1

Second, aerosolized SARS-CoV-2 has been shown to remain viable in the air for at least 3 hours and viral RNA (not necessarily viable virus) has been found in the air outside patient rooms and inside patient rooms in the absence of cough.2,9 One study found SARS-CoV-2 in outdoor air at a hospital entrance and in front of a department store.7

Third, contaminated air samples and long-range aerosol transport and transmission have been reported by several studies involving a related coronavirus, SARS-CoV-1, the agent of SARS.2

What’s the ramifications of aerosol transmission of Covid-19? The most obvious is the requirement for universal wearing of masks or face covers in public spaces even when 6 feet apart. This practice is particularly important indoors where the amount of ventilation, number of people, duration of stay in the facility, and airflow direction may impact the risk of exposure to SARS-CoV-2.1

The other potential ramification of aerosolized SARS-CoV-2 is that due to their smaller size, these virus-laden particles may bypass the upper respiratory tract and be inhaled directly into the lungs resulting in more severe disease.4  So it really makes sense to routinely wear a mask when out in public places.

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that 1 minute of loud speaking could generate over 1000 virus-containing aerosols in the air with a “super-emitter” generating over 100,000 virus particles in their droplets during the same time?1

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 References

  1. Prather KA, Wang CC, Schooley RT. Reducing transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Science. May 27, 2020.
  2. Anderson EL, Turnham P, Griffin JR, et al. Consideration of the aerosol transmission for COVID-19 and public health. Risk Analysis 2020;40:902-7.
  3. Hamner L, Dubbel P, Capron I, et al. High SARS-CoV-2 attack rate following exposure at a choir practice-Skagit County, Washington, March 2020. MMWR 2020; 69: 606-10.
  4. Gralton J, Tovey E, McLaws ML, et al. The role of particle size in aerosolized pathogen transmission: a review. J Infect 2011;62:1-13.
  5. Asadi S, Bouvier N, Wexler AS et al. The coronavirus pandemic and aerosols: does COVID-19 transmit via expiratory particles. Aerosol Sci Technol 2020;54:635-38.
  6. Morawska L, Cao J. Airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2: the world should face the reality. Env International 2020;139:105730.
  7. Liu Y, Ning Z, Chen Y, e al. Aerodynamic analysis of SARS-CoV-2 in two Wuhan hospitals. Nature 2020;582:557-60. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2271-3.pdf
  8. Somsen GA, van Rijn C, Kooij S, et al. Small droplet aerosols in poorly ventilated spaces and SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Lancet Respir Med 2020; May 27. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7255254/pdf/main.pdf

9. Santarpia JL, Rivera DN, Herrera V, et al. Transmission potential of SARS-CoV-2 in viral shedding observed at the University of Nebraska Medical Center. 2020 (Preprint) https://www.ehs.ucsb.edu/files/docs/bs/Transmission_potential_of_SARS-CoV-2.pdf

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

What’s the role of small droplets or aerosolized particles in the transmission of Covid-19?

How does Covid-19 affect pregnancy?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , Leave a comment

We still have a long ways to go before fully understanding the potential effects of Covid-19 on pregnant women and their infants but based on data to date the disease severity seems similar to that of non-pregnant people and vertical transmission seems rare.

 
In one of the larger studies involving 158 obstetric patients with Covid-19 from New York City, ~80% had mild or asymptomatic disease with the rest manifesting moderate or severe disease (1). Cough and fever were common symptoms in both groups. Women with moderate/severe disease were more likely to have comorbidities (eg, asthma) and were also more likely to have dyspnea and chest pain/pressure. Other symptoms included muscle aches, sore throat, congestion, headache, diarrhea, nausea and loss of taste or smell. Two women had pre-term delivery because of clinical status deterioration; there were no reported deaths. The generally favorable course of Covid-19 among pregnant women has been supported by other studies (2,3,4).

 
To date, vertical transmission of SARS-CoV-2, the agent of Covid-19 appears rare (2,3,5,6). In one review, only 1 of 75 newborns tested for SARS-CoV-2 infection were positive; this infant did well clinically but had transient lymphocytopenia and abnormal liver function tests (2). A systematic review found no evidence of intrauterine transmission of SARS-CoV-2 (6).

 
Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 during the first trimester may be unlikely because of expression of ACE2 (a receptor for the virus) in the trophoblasts is very low between 6-14 weeks (7). In a small study examining placenta and fetal membranes in Covid-19 women, 3/11 samples were positive for SARS-CoV-2 but none of the infants tested positive on day 1-5 of life or demonstrated symptoms of Covid-19 (8).

 
Although another source of perinatal infection is exposure to mother’s secretions during vaginal delivery, so far presence of SARS-CoV-2 in vaginal secretions has not been reported (8). Also encouraging is a study of 18 infants born of women testing positive for SARS-CoV-2, all of whom had normal APGAR scores, with the majority (>80%) testing negative (3).

 
So overall, the major threat of Covid-19 to the fetus appears to be the severity of illness in the mother. Pregnant women should be familiar with the early symptoms of Covid-19 and seek medical care as soon as possible.

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References
1. Andrikopoulou M, Madden N, Wen T, et al. Symptoms and critical illness among obstetric patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection. OB GYN 2020 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32459701/
2. Zaigham M, Andersson O. Maternal and perinatal outcomes with COVID-19: a systematic review of 108 pregnancies. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2020;00:1-7. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32259279/
3. Breslin N, Baptiste C, Gyamfi-Bannerman C, et al. Coronavirus disease 2019 infection among asymptomatic and symptomatic pregnant women: two weeks of confirmed presentations to an affiliated pair of New York City hospitals. Am J Obstet Gynecol MFM 2020;100118. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589933320300483
4. Chen L, Li Q, Zheng D, et al. Clinical characteristics of pregnant women with Covid-19 in Wuhan, China. N Engl J Med 2020, April 17. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMc2009226?af=R&rss=currentIssue
5. Di Mascio D, Khalil A, Saccone G, et al. Outcome of coronavirus spectrum infections (SARS, MERS, COVID-19) during pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J OB GYN 2020. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002937820305585
6. Yang Z, Liu Y. Vertical transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2: A systematic review. Am J Perinatol 2020;10.1055/s-0040-1712161. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32403141/
7. Amouroux A, Attie-Bitach, Martinovic J, et al. Evidence for and against vertical transmission for SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19). Am J OB GYN 2020. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000293782030524X
8. Penfield CA, Brubaker SG, Lighter J. Detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 in placental and fetal membrane samples. Am J OB GYN MFM 2020. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32391518/

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

How does Covid-19 affect pregnancy?

What’s the connection between elevated troponins and Covid-19?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Elevated cardiac troponins or myocardial injury (defined as troponin levels above the 99th percentile upper reference range) are not uncommon in Covid-19, having been reported in ~10-30% of hospitalized patient and usually observed in the absence of acute coronary syndrome (ACS) (1-4).

 
Elevated troponins have been associated with increased risk of in-hospital mortality in Covid-19. The prevalence of elevated troponins among patients who died was 76% compared to 10% among survivors in 1 Chinese study (3). Another study from China found increasing troponin levels over a 22 day period among those who died while troponin levels remained low in those who survived (5).

 
Risk factors for elevated troponins in Covid-19 include older age, cardiovascular comorbidities (eg, hypertension, coronary heart disease, heart failure), diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, chronic renal failure, and the presence of a high inflammatory state, as indicated by elevated inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein (CRP) (3).

 
Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain elevated troponins in Covid-19, including cytokine-induced myocardial injury, microangiopathy due to prothrombotic state, myocardial infarction (type I due to plaque rupture or type II due to oxygen supply/demand imbalance), and myocarditis either due to direct viral invasion or indirectly through immune-mediated mechanisms (1,2).

 
Patients with Covid-19 and modest troponin elevation with rapid fall in the absence of signs or symptoms of ACS, may have type II myocardial infarction due to demand ischemia, particularly in the setting of coronary disease. In contrast, more protracted elevation of troponins associated with high inflammatory markers such as CRP is suggestive of hyperinflammatory myocardial injury (1).

 

It will be interesting to see if trials of anti-inflammatory agents, such as colchicine and anti-interleukin-I, will have an impact on the troponin levels in Covid-19 patients (1).

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References
1. Cremer PC. SARS-CoV-2 and myocardial injury: few answers, many questions. Clev Clin J Med. Posted April 8, 2020. Doi:10.3949/ccjm.87a.ccc001 https://www.ccjm.org/content/early/2020/05/12/ccjm.87a.ccc001
2. Tersalvi G, Vicenzi M, Calabretta D, et al. Elevated troponin in patients with coronavirus disease 2019:possible mechanisms. J Card Failure 2020; https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32315733/
3. Shi S, Qin M, Cai Y, et al. Characteristics and clinical significance of myocardial injury in patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019. Eur Heart J 2020. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32391877/
4. Richardson S, Hirsch JS, Narasimhan M, et al. Presenting characteristics, comorbidities, and outcomes among 5700 patients hospitalized with COVID-19 in the New York City area. JAMA 2020;323:2052-59. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2765184
5. Zhou F, YU T, Du R, et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet 2020;395:1054-62. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30566-3/fulltext

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

 

What’s the connection between elevated troponins and Covid-19?

What role does obesity play in severe Covid-19?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Obesity has been shown to be a strong independent predictor of not only Covid-19-related hospitalization but also critical illness requiring invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV) or ICU support (1-3).

 
A large New York City study involving over 4,000 Covid-19 patients found obesity ( BMI≥30 kg/m2) to be an independent risk factor for hospitalization; BMI 30-40 kg/m2 was associated with ~4-fold and >40 kg/m2 with ~6-fold increased risk. Obesity was also strongly associated with increased risk of critical illness, stronger than other common preexisting conditions such as heart disease, hypertension or diabetes (1, preprint).

 
Another New York City study found that among Covid-19 patients younger than 60 years of age, obese patients were twice as likely to be hospitalized or have critical illness (2). Similarly, a French study found severe obesity (BMI >35 kg/m2) to be strongly associated with IMV compared to those with BMI <25 kg/m2 (O.R. 7.4, 1.7-33) (3).

 
Many factors likely play a role in making obese patients particularly susceptive to severe Covid-19. Obesity is a well-recognized inflammatory state and is associated with abnormal secretion of cytokines and adipokines which may have an effect on lung parenchyma and bronchi (1,3,4). Somewhat paradoxically, obese patients may also have an impaired adaptive immune response to certain infections, including influenza (4). Abdominal obesity is also associated with impaired ventilation of the base of the lungs resulting in reduced oxygenation (1).

 

 

Bonus Pearl: Did you know among pre-existing conditions commonly found in the population (eg, hypertension, diabetes, COPD), obesity has been found to be the only condition independently associated with pulmonary embolism in Covid-19 (O.R. 2.7, 1.3-5.5) (5).

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References
1. Petrilli CM, Jones SA, Yang J, et al. Factors associated with hospitalization and critical illness among 4, 103 patients with Covid-19 disease in New York City. MedRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.0820057794
2. Lighter J, Phillips M, Hochman S, et al. Obesity in patients younger than 60 years is a risk factor for COVID-19 hospital admission. Clin Infect Dis 2020. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32271368/
3. Simonnet A, Chetboun M, Poissy J, et al. High prevalence of obesity in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) requiring invasive mechanical ventilation. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32271993/
4. Sattar N, BcInnes IB, McMurray JJV. Obesity a risk factor for severe COVID-19 infection:multiple potential mechanisms. Circulation 2020. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.047659
5. Poyiadji N, Cormier P, Patel PY, et al. Acute pulmonary embolism and COVID-19. Radiology 2020; https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32407256/

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

What role does obesity play in severe Covid-19?

Why is Covid-19 more contagious than SARS or MERS?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

From the beginning of the Covid-19 pandemic, it was evident that SARS-CoV2, the agent of Covid-19, was more contagious than other well-known coronaviruses that cause SARS or MERS. Based on a fascinating “shell disorder” model, the reason may lie in the “odd” combination of “hardiness” of its membrane protein (M) (outer shell) making it more likely to survive in body fluids and environment, and resilience of its nuclear protein (N) (inner shell) making it more likely to rapidly replicate even before the immune system detects it.1

Outer shell hardiness of the M protein of SARS-CoV2 contributes to its persistence in the environment and resistance to digestive enzymes in saliva, mucus, stool, and other bodily fluids. Inner shell resilience of the N protein can lead to greater virulence through more rapid replication of viral proteins and particles. The latter is also an efficient way of evading the host immune system ie, by the time the immune system finds out there is a problem, the virus has already reproduced in high numbers in the absence of symptoms!

Long before Covid-19 pandemic, a group of scientists proposed categorization of coronaviruses into 3 major “shell disorder” categories (based on the features of the M and N proteins), correlating with their primary modes of transmission. Category A: higher levels of respiratory transmission, lower levels of fecal-oral transmission (eg. HCoV-229E, common cold coronavirus); category B: intermediate levels of respiratory and fecal-oral transmission (eg, SARS-CoV); and category C: lower levels of respiratory transmission with higher levels of fecal-oral transmission (eg, MERS).1,2  

It turns out that Covid-19 falls into category B which means that it has the potential for transmission not only through respiratory route but also through fecal-oral route and the environment. What’s “odd” about SARS-CoV2 though is that it seems to have the hardiest outer shell compared to SARS-CoV and other coronaviruses in its category.

So not only is Covid-19 more likely to be transmitted due to high viral loads in the respiratory tract even before symptoms develop, it may have an advantage over other respiratory coronaviruses by persisting in the environment when contaminated by respiratory secretions, feces or other body fluids.

Truly a “novel” virus!

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that despite being more contagious, Covid-19 is fortunately less fatal than SARS or MERS?

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References

  1. Goh GKM, Dunker AK, Foster JA, Uversy VN. Shell disorder analysis predicts greater resilience of the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) outside the body and in body fluids. Microbial pathogenesis 2020;144:104177. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32244041/
  2. Goh GKM, Dunker AK, Uversky VN. Understanding viral transmission behavior via protein intrinsic disorder prediction: Coronaviruses. J Pathol 2012;2012:738590. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3477565/

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

Why is Covid-19 more contagious than SARS or MERS?

How does older people’s immune system place them at high risk of sepsis and death?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Increased risk of sepsis and death from infectious causes among the elderly is a well-known phenomenon—particularly as witnessed in the Covid-19 era— and is in part due to 2 major age-related alterations of their immune system: 1. Defective T and B cell functions in response to acute infections; and 2. Once infection sets in, inadequate control of sepsis-induced pro-inflammatory response and its attendant procoagulant state. Interestingly, the essential elements of the innate immunity (eg, neutrophils, dendritic cells, complements) are generally spared from the effects of aging.1,2

Increased susceptibility of the elderly to acute infections is in part caused by poorer T helper cell function and suboptimal B cell humoral response to neoantigens. Despite this, serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6,TNF-alpha, and IFN-gamma are intact.  In fact, production of IL-6 and its duration of response is actually increased in the elderly.1,2

Poor control of the inflammatory state due to sepsis in older patients may be related to the difficulty in clearing a pathogen or dysfunction in the signaling by counter-regulatory cytokines, such as IL-10.2 Either way, unchecked inflammatory response is deleterious to the patient and is associated with increased risk of thrombosis and thromboembolism, multiorgan system failure, septic shock and death. 

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that even in the absence of infection, older people are more prone to thrombosis and thromboembolism , in part related to elevated plasma levels of fibrinogen, as well as factor VII, VIII, and IX, among others?2,3  

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 References

  1. Ticinesi A, Lauretani F, Nouvenne A, et al. C-reactive protein (CRP) measurement in geriatric patients hospitalized for acute infection. Eur J Intern Med 2017;37:7-12. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27594414/
  2. Opal SM, Girard TD, Ely EW. The immunopathogenesis of sepsis in elderly patients. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41: (Suppl 7) S504-12. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16237654/
  3. Mari D, Coppola R, Provenzano R. Hemostasis factors and aging. Experimental Gerontology 2008;43:66-73. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0531556507001404?via%3Dihub

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

 

How does older people’s immune system place them at high risk of sepsis and death?

What’s the connection between Covid-19 and cytokine release syndrome?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Severe Covid-19 is associated with a high inflammatory state similar to that seen in cytokine release syndrome (CRS) in adults with secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (sHLH) which is often due to viral infections.1,2

sHLH is characterized by unremitting fever, pulmonary involvement (including ARDS), pancytopenias, and high serum levels of ferritin, C-reactive protein (CRP) and many inflammatory cytokines, such as Interleukin (IL)-6. These features are also often seen in severe Covid-19 disease. In fact, elevated serum IL-6 has been shown to be associated with respiratory failure, ARDS, adverse clinical outcomes, and death in Covid-19.1,2  

Why CRS in Covid-19? It all begins with SARS-CoV2 activation of monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells leading to IL-6 release. IL-6 in turn activates B and T lymphocytes as well as the innate immune system. In addition, IL-6 has a profound effect on endothelial cells resulting in vascular permeability, neutrophil recruitment and further increase in IL-6 production, setting the stage for a “perfect  cytokine storm.”  IL-6 also induces the liver to synthesize CRP and ferritin.

The importance of IL-6 in severe Covid-19 is further highlighted by the excitement surrounding drugs that block its action, potentially improving morbidity and mortality in this disease. Tocilizumab, a monoclonal antibody against IL-6 receptor used in the treatment of certain rheumatological diseases and CRS in CAR T cell therapy, looks promising.3

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that IL-6 was formally called B-cell stimulatory factor-2 because it induced B cells to produce immunoglobulins?

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References

 

  1. Moore JB, June CH. Cytokine release syndrome in severe Covid-19. Science 2020;368:473-4. doi:10.1126/science.abb8925
  2. Mehta P, McAuley DF, Brown M, et al. Covid-19:consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression. Lancet 2020;395:1033-4. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30628-0/fulltext
  3. Fu B, Xu X, Wei H. Why tocilizumab could be an effective treatment for severe COVID-19. J Transl Med 2020;18:164. https://translational-medicine.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/s12967-020-02339-3
  4. Kishimoto T. IL-6: From its discovery to clinical applications. Int Immunol 2010;22:347-52. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20410258/

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

What’s the connection between Covid-19 and cytokine release syndrome?

What’s antibody-dependent enhancement and does it play a role in Covid-19?

FA Manian MD, MPH, , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

Antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) is an intriguing mechanism by which certain antibodies actually enhance viral replication by promoting entry of the pathogen into immune cells (eg, macrophages) resulting in worsening of the infection.1-4 Although these antibodies are pathogen-specific, they are commonly not neutralizing or only sub-neutralizing.4  So aside from not being able to protect the host from infection, they actually help the virus attack host cells!

Fortunately, there is no evidence that ADE contributes to pathogenesis of Covid-19 or SARS. 2,3 In fact, in contrast to the dengue virus, a classic cause of ADE,  SARS-CoV-2 does not seem to target or grow in macrophages; a related coronavirus, SARS-CoV is also unable to grow in macrophages infected through ADE.2,3

ADE was initially proposed as an explanation for severe Covid-19 cases in China.1 More specifically, it was thought that prior infection due to other coronaviruses (eg, common cold, SARS-CoV) in these patients was predisposing them to the development of severe Covid-19 following.   This hypothesis never panned out, however.  

Bonus Pearl: Did you know that in experimental studies, cats and ferrets have been found to be highly susceptible to  SARS-CoV-2, while dogs had low susceptibility and livestock, including pigs and chickens were not susceptible at all? 5

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 References

  1. Francesco N. Is antibody-dependent enhancement playing a role in COVID-19 pathogenesis. Swiss Med Wkly 2020;150:w20249. https://smw.ch/article/doi/smw.2020.20249
  2. Iwasaki A, Yang Y. The potential danger of suboptimal antibody responses in COVID-19. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41577-020-0321-6.pdf
  3. Peeples L. New feature: avoiding pitfalls in thepursuit of a COVID-19 vaccine. PNAS 2020:117:8218-8221. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7165470/
  4. Wan Y, Shang J, Sun S, et al. Molecular mechanism for antibody-dependent enhancement of coronavirus entry. J Virol 2020; 94:e02015.  https://jvi.asm.org/content/jvi/94/5/e02015-19.full.pdf 
  5. Shi J, Wen Z , Zhong G, et al. Susceptibility of ferrets, cats, dogs, and other domesticated animals to SARS-coronavirus 2.  Science 2020;10.1126/science.abb7015 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32269068/

Disclosures: The listed questions and answers are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Catalyst, Harvard University, its affiliate academic healthcare centers, or its contributors. Although every effort has been made to provide accurate information, the author is far from being perfect. The reader is urged to verify the content of the material with other sources as deemed appropriate and exercise clinical judgment in the interpretation and application of the information provided herein. No responsibility for an adverse outcome or guarantees for a favorable clinical result is assumed by the author. Thank you!

What’s antibody-dependent enhancement and does it play a role in Covid-19?